A037 - Jafar al-Sadiq

 Ja‘far al-Sadiq

Ja‘far al-Sadiq (Jaʿfar ibn Muhammad al-Sādiq) (b.c. 702 [83 AH], Medina, Hejaz, Umayyad Empire - d. 765 [148 AH], Medina, Abbasid Empire).  Last Imam recognized by both “Sevener” and “Twelver” Shi‘as.  Ja‘far al-Sadiq was the sixth imam in both Twelver and Isma‘ili traditions of Shi‘a Islam.   He was one of the most widely respected imams, respected by both Shi‘i and Sunni alike for his learning and piety.  Ja‘far al-Sadiq (the truthful) was an influential teacher, theologian and jurist.  Among his students were Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas who were instrumental in the development of Sunni Islam.  While an active Shi‘a theologian, Ja‘far appears to have had a liberal view of learning and maintained an active discourse with many scholars of differing views.  While he stayed out of politics, he was imprisoned and persecuted on several occasions by the Abbasid Caliphs.

His eldest son, Isma‘il, who had been selected to be his successor, died before Jafar, resulting in a confusion in the succession.  The Isma‘ilis maintain that Isma‘il was the seventh imam even though he had no opportunity to exercise that role.

Musa al-Kazim succeeded Jafar al-Sadiq in the Twelver tradition.

Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq (b.c. 702 – 765), commonly known as Ja'far al-Ṣādiq (lit. "Ja'far the Truthful"), was an 8th-century Muslim scholar. He was the 6th Imam and founder of the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence according to Twelver and Isma'ili Shi'ites. He is also important to Sunnis as a teacher of the Sunni scholars Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas (traditionally regarded as the founders of the Hanafi and Maliki schools of Sunni jurisprudence, respectively) and as a transmitter of Sunni hadith. Ja'far al-Sadiq also figures prominently in the initiatic chains of many Sufi orders.

Despite the fact that a wide range of works in religious as well as scientific disciplines were attributed to him, no works penned by Ja'far himself remain extant.

Al-Sadiq was born around 700, perhaps in 702 CC.  He inherited the position of imam from his father in his mid-thirties. As a Shi’a Imam, al-Sadiq stayed out of the political conflicts that embroiled the region, evading the many requests for support that he received from rebels. He was the victim of some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs, and was eventually, according to Shi’a Muslims, poisoned at the orders of the Caliph Al-Mansur. In addition to his connection with Sunni schools of Sunni jurisprudence, he was a significant figure in the formulation of Shia doctrine. The traditions recorded from al-Sadiq are said to be more numerous than all hadiths recorded from all other Shia imams combined. As the founder of Ja'fari jurisprudence, al-Sadiq also elaborated the doctrine of Nass (divinely inspired designation of each Imam by the previous Imam) and Ismah (the infallibility of the imams), as well as that of Taqiyyah -- denial of religious belief or practice in the face of persecution. 

The question of succession after al-Sadiq's death was the cause of division among Shi’a who considered his eldest son, Isma'il (who had reportedly died before his father) to be the next Imam, and those who believed his third son Musa al-Kadhim was the imam. The first group became known as the Ismailis and the second, larger, group was named Ja'fari or the Twelvers. 

Ja'far al-Sadiq was a descendant of  Ali ibn Abi Talib and Fatimah bint Muhammad through Husayn ibn Ali on the side of his father, Muhammad al-Baqir, and of Abu Bakr through Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr on the side of his mother, Umm Farwah bint al-Qasim.  Al-Sadiq was the first of the Shi'ite Imams to be descended from both Abu Bakr, the first ruler of the Rashidun Caliphate, and Ali, the first Imam and the fourth ruler of the Rashidun Caliphate. During the first fourteen years of his life, he lived alongside his grandfather Zayn al-Abidin, and witnessed the latter's withdrawal from politics. He also noted the respect that the famous jurists of Medina held toward Zayn al-Abidin in spite of his few followers.

In his mother's house, al-Sadiq also interacted with his grandfather Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was respected by the people of Medina as a famous traditionalist. During this period, Umayyad power was at its height, and the childhood of al-Sadiq coincided with the growing interest of the people of Medina in prophetic science and interpretations of the Qur'an. 

Al-Sadiq was thirty-four or thirty-seven when he inherited the position of Imam upon the death of his father Muhammad al-Baqir. He held the Imamate for 28 years, longer than any other Shi'ite Imam.  His Imamate was a crucial period in Islamic history for both political and doctrinal areas. Prior to al-Sadiq, the majority of Shi'ites had preferred the revolutionary politics of Zaid (his uncle) to the mystical quietism of his father and grandfather. Zaid had claimed that the position of an Imam was conditional on his appearing publicly to claim his rights.  Al-Sadiq, on the other hand, elaborated the doctrine of Imamate, which says "Imamate is not a matter of human choice or self-assertion," but that each Imam possesses a unique ʿIlm (Knowledge) which qualifies him for the position. This knowledge was argued to have been passed down from the Prophet Muhammad through the line of Ali ibn Abi Talib's immediate descendants. The doctrine of Nass or "divinely inspired designation of each imam by the previous imam", therefore, was completed by al-Sadiq. However, in spite of being designated as the Imam, al-Sadiq would not lay claim to the Caliphate during his lifetime.

Al-Sadiq's Imamate extended over the latter half of the Umayyad Caliphate, which was marked by many revolts (mostly by Shi'ite movements), and eventually the violent overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate by the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Al-'Abbas. Al-Sadiq maintained his father's policy of quietism, and played no part in the numerous rebellions. He stayed out of the uprising of Zaydits who gathered around his uncle Zayd, who had supported Mu'tazilites and the traditionalists of Medina and Kufa. Al-Sadiq also did not support the rebellion led by his cousin, Muhammad al-Zakiyyah who was inspired by the Kaysanites. Al-Sadiq also played no part in the Abbasid rebellion against the Umayyads. His response to a message requesting help from Abu Muslim, the Khorasan leader of an uprising against the Umayyads, became famous. Al-Sadiq asked for a lamp and burned Abu Muslim's letter, saying to the envoy who brought it, "Tell your master what you have seen." In burning Abû Muslim's letter he had also said, "This man is not one of my men, this time is not mine." Al-Sadiq also evaded requests for assistance to other claims to the throne, without advancing his own claims. He had said that even though he, as the designated Imam, was the true leader of the Ummah, he would not press his claim to the caliphate. This conscious position of neutrality was likely why Ja'far was tolerated by the Umayyad court for so long. This position also gave rise to the legal precedent of Taqiyyah -- the denial of religious belief or practice in the face of persecution. 

The end of the Umayyad dynasty and beginning of the Abbasid was a period during which central authority was weak, allowing al-Sadiq to teach freely in a school which trained about four thousand students. A school of this size was unusual for religious teachers at this time. Among these were Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas, founders of two major Sunni schools of law, the Hanafiyah and the Malikiyah.  Wasil ibn Ata, the founder of the Mu'tazila school,. was also among his pupils. After the Abbasid revolution had overthrown the Umayyad caliphate, it turned against Shi'ite groups who had previously been its allies against the Umayyads. The new Abbasid rulers, who had risen to power on the basis of their descent from Muhammad's uncle Al-'Abbas, were suspicious of al-Sadiq, because Shi'ites had always believed that leadership of the Ummah was a position issued by divine order, and which was given to each imam by the previous imam. In addition, al-Sadiq had a large following, both among scholars and among those who believed him to be the imam. During rule of Al-Mansur, al-Sadiq was summoned to Baghdad, along with some other prominent men from Medina, in order for the Caliph to keep a close watch on them. Al-Sadiq, however, asked the Caliph to excuse him from going there by reciting a hadith which said that "the man who goes away to make a living will achieve his purpose, but he who sticks to his family will prolong his life." Al-Mansur reportedly accepted his request. After the defeat and death of his cousin Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah in 762, however, al-Sadiq thought it advisable to obey Al-Mansur's summons. After a short stay in Baghdad, however, he convinced the Caliph that he was not a threat, and was allowed to return to Medina.

Toward the end of his life, al-Sadiq was subject to some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs. The governor of Medina was instructed by the Caliph to burn down his house, an event which reportedly did al-Sadiq no harm. To cut his ties with his followers, Al-Sadiq was also watched closely and occasionally imprisoned. Through these trials, Al-Sadiq appears to have continued his scholarship and remained an influential teacher in his native Medina and beyond.

Al-Sadiq married Fatimah Al-Hasan, a descendant of his ancestor Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali, with whom al-Sadiq had two sons, Isma'il ibn Ja'far (the sixth Isma'ili Imam) and Abdullah al-Aftah. Following his wife's death, al-Sadiq purchased a Berbery or Andalusian slave slave named Ḥamīdah Khātūn, freed her, trained her as an Islamic scholar, and then married her. She bore him two more sons: Musa al-Kadhim (the seventh Twelver Imam), and Muhammad al-Dibaj. Hamidah was revered by the Shi'ites, especially by women, for her wisdom. She was known as Hamidah the Pure. Ja'far al-Sadiq used to send women to learn the tenets of Islam from her, saying that "Hamidah is pure from every impurity like the ingot of pure gold."

Al-Sadiq also had a son called "Is-haq al-Mu'tamin", who reportedly married Sayyidah Nafisah bint al-Hasan, a descendant of Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali.

Al-Sadiq was arrested several times by the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs Hisham, al-Saffah, and al-Mansur. He was particularly seen as a threat by the newly minted Abbasids who felt challenged by his strong claim to the title of caliph. When he died in 765 CC (148 AH) at the age of 64 or 65, many Shi'i sources suspected that he was poisoned at the behest of Mansur. Al-Sadiq's death led to uncertainty about the succession of the Imamate. He was buried in Medina, in the famous Jannatul Baqee' cemetery, and his tomb was a place of pilgrimage until 1926. It was then that the Wahhabis, under the leadership of Ibn Saud, the founding King of Saudi Arabia, conquered Medina for the second time, and razed the tomb, along with all other prominent Islamic shrines, with the exception of that of the Prophet Muhammad.

According to Tabatabai, upon hearing the news of al-Sadiq's death, Mansur wanted to put an end to the Imamate. Mansur reportedly wrote to the governor of Medina, commanding him to read the imam's testament, and to behead the person named in it as the future imam. However, the governor found that al-Sadiq had chosen four people rather than one: Mansur himself, the governor, the Imam's oldest son Abdullah al-Aftah, and Musa al-Kazim, his younger son.

The Shi'ite group had begun to split during the lifetime of al-Sadiq, when his eldest son Isma'il ibn Jafar predeceased him. After the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq, his following fractured further, with the larger group, who came to be known as the Twelvers, following his younger son Musa al-Kadhim.  Another group believed instead that Isma'il had been designated as the next Imam, and that since he had predeceased his father, the Imamate had passed to Isma'il's son Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his descendants. This latter group became known as the Isma'ilis. Some Isma'ilis believe that Isma'il had not actually died, but would reappear as the Mahdi, the rejuvenator of Islam in the Shi'ite doctrine. Still other groups accepted either Abdullah al-Aftah or Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (Al-Dibai), both sons of the Ja'far al-Sadiq, as the imam. A final group believed that al-Sadiq had been the last imam, and that the lineage had not continued. After the death of Musa al-Kazim, the majority of his followers recognized his son Ali al-Ridha as the eighth imam, while others believed that al-Kazim had been the last imam. This latter group became known as the Waqifiyah. No major divisions occurred in Shiaism from the eighth to the twelfth imam, whom the majority of the Shia (Twelvers) considered to be Muhammad al-Mahdi. Among the sects which separated from the majority, only the Zaidiyyah and the Ismaili continue to exist today.

Sadiq, Ja'far al- see Ja‘far al-Sadiq
The Truthful see Ja‘far al-Sadiq
Jaʿfar ibn Muhammad al-Sādiq see Ja‘far al-Sadiq

A036 - Suleyman the Magnificent

 Suleyman I

Suleyman I (Qanuni) (Suleyman the Magnificent) (Süleyman the Lawgiver) (Süleyman Muhteşem) (Kanuni) (b. November 6, 1494–April 1495 — d. September 5/6, 1566, near Szigetvár, Hungary).  Greatest of the Ottoman sultans.  Peace loving by nature, he took part in thirteen great campaigns in Europe and Asia.  In 1521, he conquered Belgrade and the next year the island of Rhodes.  In 1526, the Hungarians were defeated at Mohacs and Buda was temporarily occupied.   1529 saw the siege of Vienna, which was however raised soon.  The various embassies to Austria had no success, and in 1532 Suleyman started upon what the Turkish sources call “the German campaign against the king of Spain.”  However, in 1533, an armistice was concluded with Austria.

Suleyman’s next campaign was directed against Persia, which avoided the battle.  In 1534, the sultan made his ceremonial entrance in Baghdad, where he stayed for four months and built the mausoleum of Abu Hanifa.  He also visited Najaf, Kufa and Karbala’.  In 1541 and 1543, he was again in Hungary, where Turkish administration was introduced.  The war against Persia was resumed in 1548 but without success, and in 1555 a treaty was concluded at Amasia, where Suleyman received the Austrian embassy under Ogier Giselin de Busbecq.  It could only obtain an armistice.  The sultan died during the siege of Szigeth.

Suleyman was a pious man, and must have been a born ruler.  As a poet, he used the pen-name of Muhibbi.  Following the principles of his predecessors, he elaborated the system of state institutions by promulgating the “Canon,” which deals mainly with the organization of the army, the laws of landed property, the police and the feudal code.  During his reign, the Ottoman Empire established its place in international affairs.  The Christian states had lost all hope of driving the Turks out of Europe, and King Francis concluded an alliance with the Ottoman sultan.  The Turkish fleet began to be active in the Mediterranean, in the Red Sea and in the Indian Ocean.  The possession of Aden and Yemen was secured for the empire.

Under Suleyman, Ottoman civilization gained its own special character in the field of literature and especially in that of architecture with the works of Sinan in Istanbul, Baghdad, Konya, Jerusalem and Mecca.

A chronology of Suleyman’s life reads as follows:

Suleyman was born in November of 1494 as the only son of Sultan Selim I.

Early in the sixteenth century, Suleyman became sacak beyi, the governor of Kaffa in the Crimea. 

Around 1512, Suleyman moved to Anatolia, where he became governor in Manisa.

In 1520, following the death of his father, Suleyman became the new sultan.  He immediately set out on campaigns against the Christian powers in Europe.

In 1521, Belgrade (today’s Serbia) fell to the Ottomans.

In 1522, the island of Rhodes fell to the Ottomans.  This meant the end of the rule of the Knights of St. John. 

In 1526, Suleyman struck a final defeat on the Hungarians at the battle of Mohacs.  Their king was killed, and Suleyman supported the new king John.  John became the vassal king under the Ottomans.

In 1529, Suleyman started a short-lived and unsuccessful siege to Vienna.

In 1532, there was an important victory against Austria, where Ottoman forces looted large parts of the country.  However, Austria still was not put under direct Ottoman rule, as the sultan was mainly occupied with his Asian neighbors at this time.

In 1534, a campaign was launched against Persia.

In 1535, both Iraq and the region of Erzurum was conquered after the defeat of the Persians.

In 1538, the Ottomans won the sea battle off Preveza under the leadership of Khayr ud-Din, known in Europe as Barbarossa.  This made the Ottomans the leading power in the Mediterranean Sea.

From 1541 to 1562, there was a war in Hungary that led to few changes in the situation with regards to Ottoman dominance.
In 1548, a second campaign was launched against Persia. 

In 1549, the region around Van Lake came under Ottoman control. 

In 1551, Tripoli fell to the Ottomans, giving the empire control over all of the eastern Mediterranean coast from today’s Macedonia to southern Tunisia (including today’s Greece (EU), Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt and Libya.)

In 1553, Suleyman’s son, Mustafa, rebelled against his father’s rule and received many supporters in Anatolia. Suleyman’s reaction was to have Mustafa executed.

In 1554, a third campaign was launched against Persia.

In 1555, a formal peace was signed between the Safavids of Persia and the Ottomans, without substantial changes in the borders between the states.

In 1559, two other sons of Suleyman, Selim and Bayazid, began fighting over the succession to the sultanate.

In 1560, a strong Spanish campaign against Jerba was crushed by Ottoman troops.  Suleyman’s son Bayazid was executed, leaving Selim heir of the sultanate.

In 1565, the Ottomans do not succeed in capturing Malta from the Knights of St. John.

On September 5, 1566, Suleyman died near Szigetvar in Hungary.

Süleyman I, as the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566, not only undertook bold military campaigns that enlarged his realm, he also oversaw the development of what came to be regarded as the most characteristic achievements of Ottoman civilization in the fields of law, literature, art, and architecture.

Süleyman was the only son of Sultan Selim I. He became sancak beyi (governor) of Kaffa in the Crimea during the reign of his grandfather Bayezid II and of Manisa in western Asia Minor in the reign of Selim I.

Süleyman succeeded his father as sultan in September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against the Christian powers in central Europe and the Mediterranean. Belgrade fell to him in 1521 and Rhodes, long under the rule of the Knights of St. John, in 1522. At Mohács, in August 1526, Süleyman broke the military strength of Hungary, and the Hungarian king, Louis II, lost his life in the battle.

The vacant throne of Hungary was claimed by Ferdinand I, the Habsburg archduke of Austria, and by John (János Zápolya), who was voivode (lord) of Transylvania, and the candidates of the “native” party opposed to the prospect of Habsburg rule. Süleyman agreed to recognize John as a vassal king of Hungary, and in 1529, hoping to remove at one blow all further intervention by the Habsburgs, he laid siege to Vienna. Difficulties of time and distance and of bad weather and lack of supplies, no less than the resistance of the Christians, forced the sultan to raise the siege.

The campaign was successful, however, in a more immediate sense, for John was to rule thereafter over most of Hungary until his death, in 1540. A second great campaign in 1532, notable for the brilliant Christian defense of Güns, ended as a mere foray into Austrian border territories. The sultan, preoccupied with affairs in the East and convinced that Austria was not to be overcome at one stroke, granted a truce to the archduke Ferdinand in 1533.

The death of John in 1540 and the prompt advance of Austrian forces once more into central Hungary drove Süleyman to modify profoundly the solution that he had imposed in the time of John. His campaigns of 1541 and 1543 led to the emergence of three distinct Hungarys—Habsburg Hungary in the extreme north and west; Ottoman Hungary along the middle Danube, a region under direct and permanent military occupation by the Ottomans and with its main center at Buda; and Transylvania, a vassal state dependent on the Porte and in the hands of John Sigismund, the son of John Zápolya.

Between 1543 and 1562 the war in Hungary continued, broken by truces and with few notable changes on either side. The most important was the Ottoman capture of the Banat of Temesvár (Timişoara) in 1532. After long negotiations a peace recognizing the status quo in Hungary was signed in 1562.

Süleyman waged three major campaigns against Persia. The first (1534–35) gave the Ottomans control over the region of Erzurum in eastern Asia Minor and also witnessed the Ottoman conquest of Iraq, a success that rounded off the achievements of Selim I. The second campaign (1548–49) brought much of the area around Lake Van under Ottoman rule, but the third (1554–55) served rather as a warning to the Ottomans of the difficulty of subduing the Ṣafavid state in Persia. The first formal peace between the Ottomans and the Ṣafavids was signed in 1555, but it offered no clear solution to the problems confronting the Ottoman sultan on his eastern frontier.

The naval strength of the Ottomans became formidable in the reign of Süleyman. Khayr al-Dīn, known in the West as Barbarossa, became kapudan (admiral) of the Ottoman fleet and won a sea fight off Preveza, Greece (1538), against the combined fleets of Venice and Spain, which gave to the Ottomans the naval initiative in the Mediterranean until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Tripoli in North Africa fell to the Ottomans in 1551. A strong Spanish expedition against Tripoli was crushed at Jarbah (Djerba) in 1560, but the Ottomans failed to capture Malta from the Knights of St. John in 1565. Ottoman naval power was felt at this time even as far afield as India, where a fleet sent out from Egypt made an unsuccessful attempt in 1538 to take the town of Diu from the Portuguese.

The later years of Süleyman were troubled by conflict between his sons. Mustafa had become by 1553 a focus of disaffection in Asia Minor and was executed in that year on the order of the sultan. There followed during 1559–61 a conflict between the princes Selim and Bayezid over the succession to the throne, which ended with the defeat and execution of Bayezid. Süleyman himself died while besieging the fortress of Szigetvár in Hungary.

Süleyman surrounded himself with administrators and statesmen of unusual ability, men such as his grand viziers (chief ministers) İbrahim, Rüstem, and Mehmed Sokollu. ʿUlamāʾ (specialists in Islamic law), notably Abū al-Suʿūd (Hoca Çelebi) and Kemalpaşazade, made the period memorable, as did the great Turkish poet Bâkî and the architect Sinan. Süleyman built strong fortresses to defend the places he took from the Christians and adorned the cities of the Islamic world (including Mecca, Damascus, and Baghdad) with mosques, bridges, aqueducts, and other public works. In general, Süleyman completed the task of transforming the previously Byzantine city of Constantinople into Istanbul, a worthy center for a great Turkish and Islamic empire.

Suleyman’s regime was marked by strong territorial advances in North Africa, central Europe, Bessarabia and Iraq.  However, he also oversaw great advances in fields like law, literature, art and architecture.  His nickname, Kanuni, is best translated into “the Lawgiver,” indicating his importance in these fields.

Suleyman put strong emphasis on building strong fortresses to defend captured Christian cities, and he improved the infrastructure of many cities in the Muslim world, like Mecca, Damascus and Baghdad.  However, most remarkable was that during his time, Istanbul, formerly Constantinople, was fully transformed into a Muslim city through its new organization, architecture and institutions.

At the time of Suleyman's death the Ottoman Empire, with its unrivaled military strength, economic riches and territorial extent, was the world's foremost power. Suleyman's conquests had brought under the control of the Empire the major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Baghdad), many Balkan provinces (reaching present day Croatia and Austria), and most of North Africa. His expansion into Europe had given the Ottoman Turks a powerful presence in the European balance of power. Indeed, such was the perceived threat of the Ottoman Empire under the reign of Suleyman that many believed that the Ottoman conquest of Europe was imminent.

Even thirty years after his death "Sultan Solyman" was quoted by the English author William Shakespeare as a military prodigy in The Merchant of Venice (Act 2, Scene 1).

Suleyman's legacy was not, however, merely in the military field. The administrative and legal reforms which earned Suleyman the name Law Giver ensured the Empire's survival long after his death, an achievement which took many generations of decadent heirs to undo.

Through his personal patronage, Suleiman also presided over the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire, representing the pinnacle of the Ottoman Turks' cultural achievement in the realm of architecture, literature, art, theology and philosophy. Today, the skyline of the Bosphorus, and of many cities in modern Turkey and the former Ottoman provinces, are still adorned with the architectural works of Mimar Sinan. One of these, the Süleymaniye Mosque, is the final resting place of Suleyman and Herenzaltan. They are buried in separate domed mausoleums attached to the mosque.



Qanuni see Suleyman I
Suleyman the Magnificent see Suleyman I
Suleyman the Lawgiver see Suleyman I
Suleyman Muhtesem see Suleyman I
Kanuni see Suleyman I

A035 - Al-Biruni

 

Biruni
Biruni (Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni) (Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni) (Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni) (Alberuni) (September 5, 973 - December 13, 1048).  One of the most original and profound scholars of medieval Islam.  Of Iranian origin, he was equally versed in the mathematical, astronomic, physical and natural sciences and also distinguished himself as a geographer and historian, chronologist and linguist and as an impartial observer of customs and creeds.

Al-Biruni  is considered to be one of the most prominent (if not "the" most prominent) of figures in the phalanx of those universally learned Muslim scholars who characterize the Golden Age of Islamic Science.   His great contributions in so many diverse fields earned him the title al-Ustadh -- “the Master” -- the Professor par excellence.    Indeed, some historians have called the period of his activity as “The Age of al-Biruni.”

Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni was born in Khwarizm (now Kara-kalpakskaya in present day Uzbekistan) in 973.  He studied Arabic, Islamic law, and several other fields of knowledge.  Later, he learned Greek, Syriac, and Sanskrit.  His knowledge of several languages helped him in understanding the available disparate scholarship and to bring a fresh and original approach to his work.  Al-Biruni was of the view that whatever the subject one should use every available source in its original form, investigate the available work with objective scrutiny, and carry out research through direct observation and experimentation.

Al-Biruni was a contemporary of the famous physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and is known to have corresponded with him.  Al-Biruni’s contributions are so extensive that an index of his written works covers more than sixty pages.  His scientific work combined with the contributions of al-Haitham (Al-Hazen) and other Muslim scientists laid down the early foundation of modern science. 

Al-Biruni made original and important contributions to science.  He discovered seven different ways of finding the direction of the north and south, and discovered mathematical techniques to determine exactly the beginnings of the season.  He also wrote about the sun and its movements and the eclipse.  In addition, he invented a number of astronomical instruments.  Many centuries before the rest of the world, Al-Biruni theorized that the earth rotated on its axis and made accurate calculations of latitude and longitude.  These observations are contained in his book Al-Athar al-Baqia.  He wrote a treatise on timekeeping in the year 1000 of the Christian calendar.

Al-Biruni was the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena.  He stated that the speed of light is immense as compared with the speed of sound.  He described the Milky Way as a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars.  Al-Biruni described his observation of the solar eclipse of April 8, 1019, and the lunar eclipse of September 17, 1019.  He observed the lunar eclipse at Ghazna and gave precise details of the exact altitude of various well-known stars at the moment of first contact.  Al-Biruni’s book Al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina’at al-Tanjim summarizes work on mathematics and astronomy. 

Al-Biruni’s contributions in physics include an accurate determination of the specific weight of eighteen elements and compounds including many metals and precious stones.  His book Kitab-al-Jamahir discusses the properties of various precious stones.  He was a pioneer in the study of angles and trigonometry.  He worked on shadows and chords of circles and developed a method for the trisection of an angle.  He elaborated on the principle of position and discussed Indian numerals.

In the fields of geology and geography, al-Biruni contributed on geological eruptions and metallurgy, to the measurement of the longitudes and latitudes and methods of determining the relative position of one place to another.  He explained the working of natural springs and artesian wells by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels.  His book Al-Athar al-Baqiyah fi Qanun al-Khaliyah (The Chronology of Ancient Nations) deals with ancient history and geography.  Al-Biruni observed that flowers have 3, 4, 5, 6, or 18 petals, but never seven or nine. 

Al-Biruni is most commonly known by his association with Mahmud of Ghazna, a famous Muslim king who also ruled India, and his son Sultan Masud.  Impressed by his scholarship and fame, Mahmud took al-Biruni along with him on his journeys to India several times.   Al-Biruni traveled many places in India for about 20 years and studied Hindu philosophy, mathematics, geography and religion from various learned men.  In return, he taught them Greek and Muslim sciences and philosophy.

Al-Biruni’s book Kitab al-Hind (Ta’rikh al-Hind -- History of India), completed in 1030, provides a detailed account of Indian life, religions, languages, and cultures and includes many observations on geography.  He stated that the Indus Valley must be considered as an ancient sea basin filled with alluvials.  In this book, al-Biruni mentions two books Patanjal and Sakaya.  He translated these two Sanskrit books into Arabic.  The former book deals with after death accounts, and the latter with the creation of things and their types.  Abu-al-Fadal’s book Aein-i-Akbari, written six centuries later during the reign of Akbar, was influenced by al-Biruni’s book.

Al-Biruni wrote his famous book Al-Qanun al-Masudi Fi al-Hai‘a Wa al-Nujum (1030) after he returned from India.  The book was dedicated to Sultan Masud and it discusses several theorems of trigonometry, astronomy, solar, lunar and planetary motions, and contains a collection of twenty-three observations of equinoxes.  Another well-known books is Kitab al-Saidana.  This book is an extensive materia medicia that synthesizes Arab medicine with Indian medicine.  His investigations included a description of Siamese twins.  He also wrote on the astrolabe and a mechanical calendar.

Al-Biruni was a scientist who was always mindful of his faith, and who believed himself to be blessed in his scientific endeavors.  He said:  "My experience in the study of astronomy and geometry and experiments in physics revealed to me that there must be a Planning Mind of Unlimited Power.  My discoveries in astronomy showed that there are fantastic intricacies in the universe which prove that there is a creative system and a meticulous control that cannot be explained through sheer physical and material causes."

When Sultan Masud sent al-Biruni three camel loads of silver coins in appreciation of his encyclopedic work Al-Qanun al-Masudi (The Mas’udi Canon), al-Biruni politely returned the royal gift saying, "I serve knowledge for the sake of knowledge and not for money."

Some of al-Biruni's works which were well known in Medieval Europe were: The Chronology of Ancient Nations (Al-Athar al-Baqiya), in which al-Birunu treats the eras, traditions, and histories of the various religious and ethnic groups, known in medieval Islam; The Determination of Coordinates of Cities, the most extensive treatise on mathematical geography written in medieval times; and his Pharmacology, a detailed compilation of sources on drugs known in antiquity and medieval times. 

Without a doubt, al-Biruni was one of the greatest scientists of all times.  However, in spite of his prolific and diverse output, medieval biographers devoted only a few lines to him and the European Latin translators of Arabic manuscripts showed little interest in his works.  In comparison to the honored treatment rendered his contemporaries Ibn Sina and Ibn al-Haitham, al-Biruni was relatively ignored.  The reason for this disregard may lie in the fact that while obviously gifted in scientific and historical matters, al-Biruni was not particularly adept in the more esteemed philosophical matters and, as such, was not well regarded amongst his contemporaries.  Nevertheless, when al-Biruni died in 1048 in Ghazna (Afghanistan), his death brought to an end an illustrious and productive forty-year career.

Al-Biruni was one of the greatest scholars of medieval Islam.  He was both a singular compiler of the knowledge and scientific traditions of ancient cultures and a leading innovator in Islamic science.

Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was born in 973 in Khiva, Khwarizm (in modern day Uzbekistan).  He was of Iranian descent and spent most of his childhood and young adult years in his homeland of Khwarizm, south of the Aral Sea.  (His sobriquet derives from birun – “suburb” -- in reference to his birth in an outlying neighborhood of Khiva.)  Little is known of al-Biruni’s childhood except for the important matter of his education, which was directed by the best local mathematicians and other scholars.  His exceptional intellectual powers must have become apparent very early.  Al-Biruni’s religious background was Shi‘a, although in later years he professed agnostic leanings.  A precocious youth, while still a student in Khwarizm, al-Biruni entered into correspondence with Avicenna (Ibn Sina), one of the leading lights of Islamic medicine.  Some of Avicenna’s replies are preserved in the British Museum.

Although he published some material as a young student, the scope of al-Biruni’s intellectual powers only became apparent when he left Khwarizm to travel and learn abroad.  In al-Biruni’s age, the key to scholarly success lay in attaching oneself to a powerful and influential court society and obtaining noble patronage.  He found the first of many such benefactors in the Samanid sultan Mansur II, after whose demise he took up residence in the important intellectual center of Jurjan, southeast of the Caspian Sea.  From here, al-Biruni was able to travel throughout northeastern Iran.

While at Jurjan, al-Biruni produced his first major work, al-Athar al-baqiyah ‘an al-qurun al-khaliyah (The Chronology of Ancient Nations).  This work is an imposing compilation of calendars and eras from many cultures.  It also deals with numerous issues in mathematics, astronomy, geography, and meteorology.  The work is in Arabic -- the major scientific and cultural language of the time -- as are nearly all of al-Biruni’s later writings, although al-Biruni himself was a native speaker of an Iranian dialect.  As would have been common among Muslim scholars of his time, al-Biruni was also fluent in Hebrew and Syriac, the major cultural and administrative languages in the Semitic world prior to the Arab conquest. 
 
Around 1008, al-Biruni returned to his homeland of Khwarizm at the invitation of the local shah, who subsequently entrusted him with several important diplomatic missions.  In 1017, however, his tranquil life as a scholar-diplomat took a rude turn.  The shah lost his life in a military uprising, and shortly thereafter forces of the powerful Ghaznavid dynasty of neighboring Afghanistan invaded Khwarizm.  Together with many other scholars -- as part of the booty of war -- al-Biruni found himself led away to Ghazna, which was to become his home base for the remainder of his life.

Ironically, this deportation afforded al-Biruni his greatest intellectual opportunity.  The Ghaznavids appreciated scholarly talent, and the sultan, Mahmud, attached al-Biruni to his court as official astronomer/astrologer.  Mahmud was in the process of expanding his frontiers in every direction.   The most coveted lands were in India, and during the sultan’s campaigns there al-Biruni was able to steep himself in the world of Hindu learning.  In India, he taught eager scholars his store of Greek, Persian, and Islamic knowledge.  In return, he acquired fluency in Sanskrit, the doorway to what was, for al-Biruni, essentially a whole new intellectual universe. 

In 1030, al-Biruni completed his marvelous Tar’ikh al-Hind. This masterpiece remains, in the eyes of many scholars, the most important treatise on Indian history and culture produced by anyone prior to the twentieth century.  The degree of scholarly detachment and objectivity displayed in al-Biruni's history of India is almost without parallel for the time, and the work consequently is still of enormous value to contemporary scholars. 

Almost at the same time, al-Biruni produced another work dedicated to the sultan Mas‘ud ibn Mahmud, heir to the Ghaznavid throne.  Kitab al-qanun al-Mas‘udi fi ‘l-hay’a wa ‘l-nujum (Canon Masudicus -- c. 1030) is the largest and most important of al-Biruni’s mathematical and geographical studies.

During his long and productive life, al-Biruni authored many other treatises of varying length -- he himself claimed to have produced more than one hundred -- in addition to those mentioned above.  They include essays on arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and astrology, a pioneering effort in mineralogical classification, and, toward the end of his career, material on the medical sciences.  His compendia of Indian and Chinese minerals, drugs, potions, and other concoctions, still not systematically studied, may be of immense value to pharmacology.  Some of these works have been lost.  They are known only through references by other scholars.  Many survive but await translation into European languages.

In the golden age of medieval Islam, a small number of incredibly versatile and creative intellects stood at the interface of Semitic, Hellenistic, Persian, and Hindu culture and learning.  Their syntheses and insights often brought about quantum leaps in scientific and historical thought in Islam -- so vast, in fact, that in some cases their achievements were fully appreciated only by later ages better prepared to comprehend them.  Al-Biruni was one of these intellects and, for some historians, the most important of all.  The Chronology of Ancient Nations, for example, constitutes an unprecedented attempt to periodize the history of the known world by comparing and cross-referencing large numbers of chronologies and calendrical systems.  His work provides a basis for chronological studies which has yet to be fully exploited.

Al-Biruni’s immense store of astronomical and geographical knowledge led him to the verge of modern scientific ideas about the earth and the universe.  He was familiar with the concept that Earth rotates on its axis to produce the apparent movement of celestial bodies, rather than those bodies revolving around Earth (although he did not necessarily endorse the idea).  His insights with respect to geography were profound.  On the basis of reports of various flotsam found in the seas, al-Biruni reasoned that the continent of Africa must be surrounded by water, thus taking exception with the Ptolemaic cosmography popular in Christendom, which held that Africa extended indefinitely to the south.  Upon examining the Indus Valley in what is now Pakistan, al-Biruni correctly guessed that it had once been a shallow sea filled in through the centuries by alluvial deposits from the river.  Al-Biruni also explained the operation of artesian springs and wells essentially in terms of modern hydrostatic principles.  He devised a system of geographical coordinates which is still a marvel to cartographers.

In medieval Islam, the significance of scholarship may often be determined by how frequently a scholar’s materials were copied by later generations of researchers (a practice for which modern scholars are grateful, since much otherwise would now be lost.  The thirteenth century geographer Yaqut, for example, cited al-Biruni extensively in his own work.  Yaqut’s material on oceanography and general cosmography is drawn almost verbatim from his illustrious predecessor. 

Like many scholars in Islam’s golden age, al-Biruni was a polymath, a Renaissance man before there was a Renaissance.  Some modern scholars have criticized him for writing extensively on astrology, usually at the behest of his noble patrons.  Astrology, however, was in a certain sense a means of popularizing the science of the time, and al-Biruni most likely used it to reach a lay audience, just as contemporary popular science writers often simplify and make use of analogy.  He seems to have regarded astrology as a gesture to simple people who wanted immediate, practical results from science.

Al-Biruni’s astounding versatility has prompted some to place him in a league with Leonardo da Vinci as one of the greatest geniuses of all time.  The most appropriate description, however, comes from his students, patrons, and other contemporaries.  To them, al-Biruni was simply “The Master.” 



al-Ustadh see Biruni
Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni see Biruni
Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni see Biruni
“The Master” see Biruni
Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni see Biruni

A034 - Mehmed II

 Mehmed II

Mehmed II (Mehmed II Fatih) (Mehmet II) (Muhammad II) (Meḥmed-i s̠ānī) (el-Fātiḥ -- "the Conqueror") (Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (Mahomet II) (March 30, 1432, Edirne – May 3, 1481, Hünkârçayırı, near Gebze).  Ottoman sultan (1444-1446 and 1451-1481).  His byname (Fatih) means, in Turkish, “the Conqueror.”

Mehmed II was born on March 30, 1432, in Edirne as son of sultan Murad II and a slave girl.  In 1444, according to the tradition of the sultan’s sons, he was sent to Manisa (near Izmir) for training.  His father abdicated, and gave the throne to Mehmed when he was only 12 years old.  The task proved to be very difficult for the boy, as there were many tensions inside the empire as well as serious threats along the border.

In May 1446, against Mehmed’s will, Murad returned to power, in order to bring stability to the empire.

On February 18, 1451, following his father’s death earlier in the month, Mehmed ascended the throne for the second time.  His authority in the empire was, at this point, far from established.  The first group he had to take control over were the Janissaries – a group that had been strong enough to play a crucial part in getting him removed from power five years earlier. 

In 1452, Mehmed began the preparations for the conquering of Constantinople.  He managed to sign favorable peace treaties with Venice and Hungary, in order to make them neutral.   He started several important projects to prepare for war, like building the fortress of Bagazkesen in order to control the Strait of Bosphorus, and constructing thirty-one galleys and building canons and cast guns of a caliber yet unknown in Europe.

On April 6, 1453, the siege of Constantinople began, despite the heavy opposition of the grand vizier Candarli.  On May 29, 1453, Constantinople gave in, and was sacked by the Ottoman troops.  On May 30, 1453, Mehmed stopped the looting of Constantinople; converted the Hagia Sophia into a mosque, and began planning for the new city, which would be known as Istanbul.  This day he also had his grand vizier Candarli arrested and later executed.

Later in 1453, a big effort was begun to repopulate Constantinople by encouraging Greek and Genoese traders to return, deporting Muslims and Christians to Istanbul, and promoting religious institutions for Jews, Armenians, and other Christian groups.

On August 11, 1473, Mehmed achieved what was arguably his most strategic victory when he defeated the Turmen leader Uzun Hasan at Bashkent.   With this victory, Mehmed achieved full control over Anatolia.

Mehmed died on May 3, 1481, in Hunkarcayiri near Maltepe near Istanbul.

Mehmed was sultan twice.   The first time was a very problematic period, as his court was weakened by the conflict between his grand vizier Candarli hall and the 2 viziers Zaganos and Sihabeddin.  Along the borders, Christian Crusaders were attacking from the north (near Varna, in today’s Romania).   It was his father, the abdicated sultan Murad I who first defeated the Crusaders, and later returned to office in order to bring stability back to the empire.

While Mehmed’s first period as sultan was a flop, his return was a great one.  He is deemed to be one of the greatest of the Ottoman sultans.  In addition to conquering Constantinople, Mehmed put great emphasis on culture, science and law.  He brought some of the greatest European minds to his court, built libraries, colleges, and invited peoples of different races and religions to move to Istanbul (as Constantinople was named) – thereby creating the foundations for the greatness for this city in centuries to follow.   His success and fame was for a time so strong that he assumed the title Kayser-i Rum (Roman Caesar).


Mehmed II Fatih see Mehmed II
Mehmed the Conqueror see Mehmed II
Mehmet II see Mehmed II
Muhammad II see Mehmed II
Mehmed-i sani see Mehmed II
Fatih Sultan Mehmet see Mehmed II

A033 - Tariq ibn Ziyad

 

Tariq ibn Ziyad
Tariq ibn Ziyad (Tariq ibn Ziyad ibn ‘Abd Allah) (Tariq ibn Zayd) (Taric bin Zeyad) (Tarik ibn Zeyad) (November 15, 689 – April 11, 720).  Berber chief and leader of the Muslim forces in the conquest of al-Andalus.  He crossed the Straits in 711 and concentrated his troops on a hill which took his name: Jabal Tariq (Gibraltar).  The Muslims were victorious in the decisive battle fought with the Goths at the mouth of the Wadi Bekka (in Spanish, Rio Barbate).  Tariq was joined by his commander Musa ibn Nusayr in 712 and the Muslim forces took Madina Sidonia, Carmona, Seville, Merida, Ecija, Toledo, Cordoba, Archidona and Elvira and soon reached Saragossa and the highlands of Aragon, Leon, the Asturias and Galicia.  In a very short time, Muslim Spain had practically attained its extreme geographical limits.

Mūsā ibn Nuṣayr, the Arab conqueror of Morocco, left his general Ṭāriq to govern Tangier in his place. Spain at this time was under Visigothic rule but was torn by civil war. The dispossessed sons of the recently deceased Visigothic king of Spain, Wittiza, appealed to the Muslims for help in the civil war, and the Arabs quickly responded to this request in order to conquer Spain for themselves. In May 711, Ṭāriq landed on Gibraltar with an army of 7,000 men, mostly Berbers, Syrians, and Yemenis. Gibraltar henceforth became known as Jabal Ṭāriq (Mount Tarik), from which the Anglicized form of the name is adapted.

Ṭāriq soon advanced to the Spanish mainland itself, gaining valuable support from Spanish Jews who had been persecuted by the Visigoths and from Christian supporters of Wittiza’s sons. In July 711 he defeated the forces of the Visigothic usurper king Roderick at Guadalete. He then immediately marched upon Toledo, the capital of Spain, and occupied that city against little resistance. He also conquered Córdoba. Mūsā himself arrived in Spain with about 18,000 more Arab troops in 712, and together the two generals occupied more than two-thirds of the Iberian peninsula in the next few years. In 714, Mūsā and Ṭāriq were summoned by the caliph back to Damascus, where they were both accused of misappropriation of funds and died in obscurity.

Tariq ibn Ziyad is considered to be one of the most important military commanders in Iberian history.

Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, also known simply as Tarik in English, was a Berber Umayyad commander who initiated the Muslim Umayyad conquest of Visigothic Hispania (present-day Spain and Portugal) in 711–718 AD. He led a large army and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from the North African coast, consolidating his troops at what is today known as the Rock of Gibraltar. The name "Gibraltar" is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, meaning "mountain of Ṭāriq", which is named after him.

Medieval Arabic historians give contradictory data about Ṭāriq's origins and nationality. Some conclusions about his personality and the circumstances of his entry into al-Andalus are surrounded by uncertainty. The vast majority of modern sources state that Ṭāriq was a Berber mawla -- a Berber (non-Arab) convert to Islam -- of Musa ibn Nusayr, the Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya. 

According to Ibn Abd al-Hakam (803–871), Musa ibn Nusayr appointed Ṭāriq governor of Tangier after its conquest in 710-711  but an unconquered Visigothic outpost remained nearby at Ceuta, a stronghold commanded by a nobleman named Julian, Count of Ceuta. 

After Roderic came to power in Spain, Julian had, as was the custom, sent his daughter, Florinda la Cava,  to the court of the Visigothic king (Roderic) for education. It is said that Roderic raped Florinda, and that Julian was so incensed he resolved to have the Muslims bring down the Visigothic kingdom. 

Subsequently,, Julian entered into a treaty with Ṭāriq (Mūsā having returned to Qayrawan) to secretly convoy the Muslim army across the Straits of Gibraltar, as Julian owned a number of merchant ships and had his own forts on the Spanish mainland.

On or about April 26, 711, the army of Ṭāriq ibn Ziyad, composed of recent converts to Islam, was landed on the Iberian peninsula (in what is now Spain) by Julian. They debarked at the foothills of a mountain which was henceforth named after him, Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq).

Ṭāriq's army contained about 7,000 soldiers, composed largely of Berber stock but also Arab troops. Roderic, to meet the threat of the Umayyads, assembled an army said to number 100,000, though the real number may well have been much lower. Most of Roderic's army was commanded by, and loyal to, the sons of Wittiza, whom Roderic had brutally deposed. Ṭāriq won a decisive victory when Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. 

Ṭāriq Bin Ziyad split his army into four divisions, which went on to capture Cordoba under Mughith al-Rumi, Granada, and other places, while he remained at the head of the division which captured Toledo. Afterwards, he continued advancing towards the north, reaching Guadalajara and Astorga. Ṭāriq was de facto governor of Hispania until the arrival of Mūsā a year later. Ṭāriq's success led Musa to assemble 12,000 (mostly Arab) troops to plan a second invasion, and within a few years Ṭāriq and Musa had captured two-thirds of the Iberian peninsula from the Visigoths.

Both Ṭāriq and Musa were simultaneously ordered back to Damascus by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in 714, where they spent the rest of their lives. The son of Musa, Abd al-Aziz, who took command of the troops of al-Andalus, was assassinated in 716. In the many Arabic histories written about the conquest of southern Spain, there is a definite division of opinion regarding the relationship between Ṭāriq and Musa bin Nusayr. Some relate episodes of anger and envy on the part of Mūsā that his freedman had conquered an entire country. Others do not mention, or play down, any such bad blood. On the other hand, another early historian, al-Baladhuri, writing in the 9th century, merely states that Mūsā wrote Ṭāriq a "severe letter" and that the two were later reconciled.

Tariq ibn Ziyad ibn 'Abd Allah see Tariq ibn Ziyad
Tariq ibn Zayd see Tariq ibn Ziyad
Taric bin Zeyad see Tariq ibn Ziyad
Tarik ibn Zeyad see Tariq ibn Ziyad

A032 - 'Abd ar-Rahman I

 

‘Abd ar-Rahman I
‘Abd ar-Rahman I (al-Dakhil) ('Abd al-Rahman I) (Abderraman I) ("Falcon of Andalus") ("Falcon of the Quraish") (731-788).  First Umayyad emir of Spain and the founder of the Umayyad emirate of Cordoba (r. 756-788).  Having narrowly escaped the massacre in 750 of the Umayyads in Damascus, 'Abd ar-Rahman wandered through North Africa until 755.  With the backing of Umayyad sympathizers in Spain and Ceuta, 'Abd ar-Rahman then intervened between feuding Muslims in Spain.  He disembarked at Almunecar in August 755; entered Seville in 756; and captured Cordoba in 756 where he was recognized as emir of al-Andalus.   Until 769, he suppressed rebellions by the Spanish neo-Muslims, the Berbers and the Arabs.  A coalition of Arab chiefs sought the aid of the Frankish king, Charlemagne, who in 778 laid siege to Saragossa (Sarakusta) but had to return to the Rhine.    ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s realm was not fully pacified until the defeat of Charlemagne’s army at Roncesvalles (Roncevaux) in 778.   This is the famous battle associated with the memory of Roland.  In 780, ‘Abd ar-Rahman subdued the Basques, and occupied Saragossa for a short time. 

'Abd ar-Rahman I was the grandson of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik, the tenth Umayyad Caliph.  He was a prince and was groomed from an early age to be a caliph.  More specifically, he was the son of Mu'awiyah, son of Hisham, grandson of 'Abd al-Malik.  The child-prince was said to be tall and slender.  His mother was a Christian Berber slave, and from her he inherited red hair.

'Abd ar-Rahman was about eighteen when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by a popular revolt known as the 'Abbasid Revolution, occurring in the year 749.  'Abd ar-Rahman and a small selection of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been. After barely escaping Syria with their lives, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his former Greek slave Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai and into Egypt. It would take several years 'Abd ar-Rahman to slowly make his way into the west.  In 755, 'Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta.  He then dispatched Bedr to Iberia with a message in which he proclaimed himself the rightful Umayyad heir to the land of al-Andalus. 

At the invitation of loyal Umayyad followers, 'Abd ar-Rahman was told to go to al-Andalus. 'Abd ar-Rahman landed at Almunecar to the east of Malaga in August of 755.  'Abd ar-Rahman was greeted by local chieftains upon landing in al-Andalus.  During his brief time in Malaga, 'Abd ar-Rahman quickly amassed local support.  Waves of people made their way to Malaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians.

While the ruler of al-Andalus, al-Fihri, and the commander of his army, al-Sumayl, pondered what to do about the arrival of 'Abd ar-Rahman and the threat he posed to their power, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus.  Sarakusta (Zaragoza), an important trade city on al-Andalus' Upper March made a bid for autonomy.  Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to squash the rebellion.  This might have been fortunate timing for 'Abd ar-Rahman, as he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus.  By March of 756, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his growing following were able to take Sevilla without violence.  After putting down the rebellion in Sarakusta, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face 'Abd ar-Rahman.  The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin.  The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Cordova on the plains of Musarah.

Both armies lined on the same bank of the Guadalquivir.  'Abd ar-Rahman had no banner, so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear.  Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads.  'Abd ar-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army.  Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat.  After a long and difficult fight, 'Abd ar-Rahman obtained a complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy.  'Abd ar-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Cordova. 

'Abd ar-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus.  Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of 'Abd ar-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him.  During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Cordova itself!  However, 'Abd ar-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition.  As he always dealt severely with dissidence in al-Andalus. 

Sarakusta (Saragossa) proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only 'Abd ar-Rahman, but also, his predecessors as well.
In the year 777-778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Saragossa, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne.  Charlemagne's army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Saragossa against the Umayyad emir in Cordoba.  Essentially, Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire.  However, after Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Saragossa, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city.  It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him.  Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees named Roncesvalles (Roncevaux), where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels.  This disaster was noted in the epic Chanson de Roland. 

During his reign, 'Abd ar-Rahman strove to improve the infrastructure of al-Andalus.  He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Cordova.  Construction on the mosque was started around the year 786.  It would in time become world famous and deemed a major holy site for many Muslims, later to be known as the Mezquita de Cordoba.  'Abd ar-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife.  'Abd ar-Rahman felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army.  He, therefore, bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa.  As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced.  'Abd ar-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians to retain and practice their faiths.  They did, however, have to pay a tribute tax for this privilege.  'Abd ar-Rahman's policy of taxing non-Muslims, which was often carried out by later rulers, changed the religious dynamic of al-Andalus.  Possibly because of excessive tribute taxes, the bulk of the country's population soon became Muslim.

Around 788, 'Abd ar-Rahman died in his adopted city of Cordova.  He was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita.  'Abd ar-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I.  'Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of 'Abd ar-Rahman III.
Dakhil, al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Rahman I, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of Andalus see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of the Quraish see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
'Abd al-Rahman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Abderraman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I

A031 - Harun al-Rashid

 

Harun al-Rashid
Harun al-Rashid (Harun ar-Rashid) (English: "Aaron the Upright," "Aaron the Just," or "Aaron the Rightly Guided") (March 17, 763 – March 24, 809). Fifth and most famous Abbasid Caliph (r.786-809).  He was the son of the third Abbasid caliph, al-Mahdi (r. 775-785), and succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother al-Hadi (r. 785-786).

Thanks to the “Thousand and One Nights,” Harun al-Rashid is almost a legendary figure which obscures his true historic personality.  In fact, his reign initiated the political disintegration of the Islamic empire.

Syria, inhabited by tribes with Umayyad sympathies, remained the bitter enemy of the ‘Abbasids and Egypt witnessed risings due to poor administration and arbitrary taxation.  The Umayyads had been established in Spain in 755, the Idrisids in the Maghrib in 788 and the Aghlabids in Ifriqiya in 800.  Besides, unrest flared up in Yemen, and the Kharijites rose in rebellion in Daylam, Kirman, Fars and Sistan.  Revolts also broke out in Khurasan.  A great part of Harun al-Rashid’s fame was due to his interest in Holy War against the Byzantines, in which he occasionally participated personally. From 791 to 809, Harun’s empire was at war with the Byzantine Empire, and in 807 his forces occupied the Byzantine province of Cyprus. He also paid attention to naval power. 

The period of Harun al-Rashid’s reign marked a notable development of culture.  Until 803, administrative power was entrusted to Yahya ibn-Khalid (d. about 803), the grand vizier, or councillor of state, and head of the illustrious family of the Barmakids.  During this time, Baghdad, the capital of Harun’s realm, became the most flourishing city of the period.  Tribute was paid to the caliph by many rulers, and splendid edifices were erected in his honor at enormous cost.  He is said to have exchanged gifts with Charlemagne.  However, Arabic sources do not substantiate that such an exchange ever occurred.

Harun was a generous patron of learning, poetry, and music, and his court was visited by the most eminent Muslims of the age.  He was celebrated in countless songs and stories, and is perhaps best known to the Western world as the caliph whose court is described in the Arabian Nights.  Toward the end of his reign, Harun was influenced to depose the Barmakids, and in 803 he imprisoned the grand vizier. 

Harun ruled from 786 to 809, and his time was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. Art and music also flourished significantly during his reign. He established the legendary library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom").

Since Harun was intellectually, politically and militarily resourceful, his life and the court over which he held sway have been the subject of many tales: some are claimed to be factual but most are believed to be fictitious.  Among what is known to be fictional is The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, which contains many stories that are fantasized about Harun's magnificent court and even Harun al-Rashid himself.

Harun virtually dismembered the empire by apportioning it between his two sons al-Amin and al-Ma’mun.  The caliph died while on his way to put down an insurrection in the eastern part of his empire. 
Harun ar-Rashid see Harun al-Rashid
“Aaron the Upright” see Harun al-Rashid
"Aaron the Just" see Harun al-Rashid
"Aaron the Rightly Guided" see Harun al-Rashid