The 100 Greatest Muslims (2022); 71a- Shah Rukh, Named for a Chess Move, The 15th Century Ruler of the Timurid Empire Whose Death Began A Timurid Game of Thrones

 

Sultan Muhammad

Sultan Muhammad (b. c. 1418 – d. 1452) was the Timurid ruler of Persia and Fars from around 1447 until his death. He was the son of Baysunghur and a grandson of Shah Rukh. 

During the last years of Shah Rukh's reign, Sultan Muhammad raised a revolt in the western provinces of the Timurid Empire. Shah Rukh was able to stop the revolt and capture many of its supporters in 1446, but Sultan Muhammad took refuge in Luristan (today a province in Western Iran).  Following his grandfather's death, Sultan Muhammad returned from Luristan and from there assumed control of central Persia. Together with his half-brother, Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza of Khurasan, and his uncle, Ulugh Beg of Transoxiana, Sultan Muhammad became one of the three most powerful rulers of the splintering Timurid Empire.

Sultan Muhammad, eager to expand his domain, soon started a war with Abul-Qasim Babur and invaded Khurasan. At first the campaign went well.  Indeed, in 1450, Sultan Muhammad defeated his brother at Mashhad, following which Abul-Qasim yielded some of his lands to him. Things soon turned south, however, and Sultan Muhammad was captured by Abul-Qasim Babur.  Abul-Qasim executed Sultan Muhammad in 1452. 

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Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza

Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza (b. June 7, 1422 - d. 1457, Mashhad, Timurid Empire [today in Iran]) was a Timurid ruler in Khurasan (r. 1449–1457). He was the son of Ghiyath-ud-din Baysunghur ibn Shah Rukh Mirza, and thus a great-grandson of Timur. 

Abul-Qasim Babur was one of the many people involved in the succession struggle that took place during Shah Rukh's last years. Together with Khalil Sultan (a great-great-grandson of Timur), he plundered the baggage-train of the army and then made his way to Khurasan. Meanwhile, Ulugh Beg also invaded Khurasan in 1448 in an attempt to defeat Ala al-Dawla Mirza, who held Herat. Ulugh Beg defeated Ala al-Dawla at Tarnab and took Mashhad, while Ulugh Beg's son, Abdal-Latif Mirza, conquered Herat. Ala al-Dawla Mirza fled to south-western Afghanistan. 

Despite his success in Khurasan, Ulugh Beg felt Transoxiana, where he had already ruled for decades, to be more important, and soon left the area. On the way back to Transoxiana, Abul-Qasim Babur sent a force that inflicted heavy losses on Ulugh Beg's army.

With a power vacuum now in Khurasan, Abul-Qasim Babur quickly seized control. Mashhad and Herat fell to him in 1449. Ala al-Dawla Mirza occasionally raided the area but he was not a significant factor. Together with Ulugh Beg and Sultan Muhammad (who gained control of central Persia), Abul-Qasim Babur became one of the three important post-Shah Rukh Timurid rulers. However, this balance of power was soon upset by Sultan Muhammad, who invaded Khurasan. The campaign started out badly for Abul-Qasim Babur.  A defeat at Mashhad in March 1450 convinced him to cede parts of his territory. However, Abul-Qasim Babur soon recovered and took Sultan Muhammad prisoner.  Abul-Qasim subsequently executed Sultan Muhammad and proceeded to march to Shiraz to take control of Sultan Muhammad's lands.

At this point, Jahan Shah of the Black Sheep Turkmen ended his loyalty to the Timurids. Jahan Shah quickly put Qum and Saveh to siege. Abul-Qasim Babur began to march against Jahan Shah but was forced to return to Herat, due to the overwhelming superiority of the Black Sheep's armies and a plot hatched against him by Ala al-Dawla Mirza. Most of Persia was taken from the Timurids by 1452, with the exception of Abarquh, which was conquered by the Black Sheep in 1453. While Kirman was temporarily conquered some time later and a few attempts were made to seize Rayy, Persia as a whole was never retaken by the Timurids.

In 1454, Abul-Qasim Babur invaded Transoxiana, then under the control of Abu Sa'id Mirza in retaliation for the latter's seizure of Balkh.  Abul-Qasim Babur quickly laid siege to Samarkand.  The conflict between the two soon ended, however, with the Oxus (Amu Darya) River agreed to as the border. This remained in effect until Abul-Qasim Babur's death in 1457. 

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Abdal-Latif Mirza

Shah Rukh died of illness in his winter quarters in Rayy soon after putting down the revolt of his grandson, Sultan Muhammad, in March 1447.  The death of Shah Rukh initiated a long period of succession wars -- wars in which his widow, Gawhar Shad, would play an integral part.

Upon Shah Rukh's death, Gawhar Shad, who had been with Shah Rukh when he died, quickly dispatched a message to her favorite grandson, Ala al-Dawla, who had been left as Shah Rukh's deputy in Herat. In this message, Gawhar Shad informed Ala al-Dawla of Shah Rukh's death in Rayy and of her plans to bring the Shah's body back to Herat. However, while she and another grandson, Abdal-Latif Mirza, were escorting the body back to Herat for burial, Abdal-Latif turned on his grandmother, taking both her and the corpse of Shah Rukh hostage. 

Abdal Latif's reasons for this are uncertain, but it appears that he was attempting to preempt Ala al-Dawla from becoming the Shah  and to advance his own claims to the throne. Alternatively, this may have been part of a pre-arranged plan to support the claims of Abdal Latif's father, Ulugh Beg, who was by this point Shah Rukh's last surviving son. 

Abdal-Latif Mirza (b. c. 1420 – d. May 9, 1450, Samarkand, Timurid Empire [today in Uzbekistan]) was the great-grandson of the Central Asian (Timurid) emperor Timur. He was also the grandson of Shah Rukh and was the third son of Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler of Transoxiana (modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and parts of Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan).

Having been given the governorship of Balkh, Abdal-Latif Mirza served under his father, Ulugh Beg. During the succession struggle that followed the death of Shah Rukh, Abdal-Latif occupied Herat, although after Ulugh Beg left the city at the end of 1448 it was conquered by Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza. 

Abdal-Latif Mirza did not remain loyal to his father. Angry over the fact that he was to be passed over in the transfer of rule of Samarkand, Abdal-Latif revolted while Ulugh Beg was marching to retake Khorasan. He defeated his father at Dimashq, near Samarkand, in the fall of 1449.

Ulugh Beg later decided to surrender himself, and Abdal-Latif Mirza granted him permission to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca.  However, while Ulugh Beg was on his way, Ulugh was murdered on the orders of Abdal-Latif.  This patricide earned Abdal-Latif Mirza the infamous nickname Padarkush, or Pidarkush (from the Persian "killer of his father"). A few days later, Abdal-Latif also had his brother 'Abd al-'Aziz killed.

In this manner, Abdal-Latif became ruler of Transoxiana. A somewhat pious person, he gained the support of the local religious groups, but this did not save him from a conspiracy hatched against him by the amirs. His reign lasted for only six months. He was murdered at the age of 30 in 1450 and was succeeded by his cousin, 'Abdullah Mirza.

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'Abdullah Mirza

‘Abdullah Mirza (b. after 1410 – d. June 1451) was a short-lived ruler of the Timurid Empire, which encompassed the territory shared by present-day Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, along with substantial areas of India, Mesopotamia and Caucasus.  

As a member of the Timurid dynasty, 'Abdullah Mirza was a great-grandson of Timur, a grandson of Shah Rukh and Gawhar Shad, and a son of Ibrahim Sultan. Granted the governorship of Fars by his grandfather, 'Abdullah Mirza found his position threatened by his cousin Sultan Muhammad during the 1447 succession crisis which followed Shah Rukh's death, and was forced to abandon the province. As a supporter of Ulugh Beg, he was imprisoned by Abdal-Latif following the latter's rise to power. When Abdal-Latif was murdered in May 1450, 'Abdullah was released and made ruler of Samarkand, for which he was forced to lavish money upon the troops that supported him. Despite this, he did not enjoy widespread popularity.

During his relatively brief reign, a revolt supported by Sultan Muhammad's brother, Ala al-Dawla Mirza, did not seriously threaten him, but an uprising initiated by Abu Sa'id Mirza, whose home base, at the time, was in Bukhara, proved to be fatal. Marching from Tashkent to Samarkand with the support of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, Abu Sa'id Mirza defeated 'Abdullah Mirza and executed him in June, 1451, taking his place on the throne.

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Abu Sa'id Mirza

Abu Sa'id Mirza (b. 1424, Herat, Timurid Empire [today in Afghanistan] – d. February 8, 1469) was the ruler of the Timurid Empire during the mid-fifteenth century.

Born a minor prince of the Timurid dynasty, Abu Sa'id quickly established himself as the most prominent among his warring relations. Over the course of two decades, he reunified much of the Timurid Empire, which had become fractured in the aftermath of the death of his great-uncle Shah Rukh.  However, Abu Sa'id's hopes of restoring the empire to its former extent at the time of Timur ultimately failed after he was killed during an invasion of what is now western Iran. 

Abu Sa'id Mirza was born in 1424, the second son of the Timurid prince Muhammad Mirza by his wife Shah Islam. His father was a son of Miran Shah, himself the third son of Timur. His mother was the daughter of Suhrab Kurd and a relative of Izz al-din Shir of Hakkari, who was a former adversary of Timur's.

Abu Sa'id's father appears to have had little involvement in political matters, though Muhammad Mirza did maintain a close relationship with his influential cousin Ulugh Beg, son of the ruling sultan Shah Rukh and governor of Transoxiana. When the former visited Muhammad Mirza on his death-bed, the dying prince took Abu Sa'id's hand and placed it in Ulugh Beg's, putting the boy under his protection.

Abu Sa'id was given a role at Ulugh Beg's court, later receiving his daughter in marriage through good service. However, upon Ulugh Beg's ascension to the Timurid throne following the death of Shah Rukh, Abu Sa'id turned against his benefactor.

In 1449, while Ulugh Beg was suppressing the rebellion of his son Abdal-Latif, Abu Sa'id left his post on the northern borders and used a group of Arghun tribesmen to lead an attack on the capital Samarkand. Ulugh Beg's other son, Abdal-Aziz, retreated to the citadel and warned his father, who marched his army back to the city, forcing Abu Sa'id to retreat. However, Abdal-Latif used this distraction to his advantage, pursuing and defeating Ulugh Beg, who Abdal-Latif had assassinated soon after.  Abu Sa'id led his forces against his cousin, but was also defeated, as well as being taken captive.

Abu Sa'id escaped his imprisonment in Samarkand in 1450, fleeing to Bukhara. However, he found little support there and was imprisoned, only being spared execution when news of Abdal-Latif's death reached the city. The Bukhari nobles hastened to release the prince and swore their allegiance to him, upon which he immediately marched against the new ruler, Ulugh Beg's nephew 'Abdullah Mirza. After an initial failed assault on Samarkand, Abu Sa'id and his small group of followers seized the frontier town of Yasi. When 'Abdullah marched his forces out in retaliation, Abu Sa'id appealed to the Uzbek ruler Abu'l-Khayr Khan for aid. The latter agreed and their combined forces defeated 'Abdullah in June 1451. Given that his rival ('Abdullah) was killed during the battle, the victors were able to enter Samarkand unopposed.

Abu Sa'id claimed the Timurid throne and in gratitude to the Uzbeks, gave Abu'l-Khayr Khan rich presents as well as Ulugh Beg's daughter in marriage. When Abu Sa'id annexed Balkh in 1454, another Timurid (and another grandson of Gawhar Shad), Abul-Qasim Babur of Herat,  led his forces against him in response, culminating in a siege of Samarkand. However, the two sides eventually agreed on a truce, establishing the Amu Darya (Oxus) river as a border. This treaty remained in effect until Abul-Qasim Babur's death in 1457, and after Abul Qasim Babur's young (eleven year old) son and successor, Mahmud, was ousted from Herat by Ibrahim Mirza,  a great-nephew of Ulugh Beg. Abu Sa'id, who desired to conquer the city as well as the surrounding region of Khorasan, led his forces against Ibrahim, forcing the latter to flee.  Upon capturing Herat, Abu Sa'id had Shah Rukh's aged widow (and Abu Sa'id's great grandmother), the influential dowager-empress Gawhar Shad executed, having accused her of conspiring with Ibrahim, who was also her great-grandson.

Noting the conflict among the Timurid princes, Jahan Shah, ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu, took advantage of the situation and marched his forces into the region, capturing Herat in 1458. Jahan Shah had already had great success in conquering much of the western Timurid territories. However, as Jahan Shah was facing a revolt by his son Hasan Ali, he was forced to abandon his latest conquests, allowing the re-annexation of Khorasan by Abu Sa'id, who subsequently made Herat his capital.  Friendly relations were established between the two rulers, with multiple embassy missions taking place throughout the 1460s. 

During this period, Abu Sa'id continued to consolidate his power. In 1459, Abu Sa'id defeated the combined forces of three other Timurid princes, Sultan Sanjar, Ibrahim Mirza and Ala al-Dawla in the Battle of Sarakhs. Sanjar was captured and executed after the battle and the latter two died in exile in the following years. Abul-Qasim Babur's ousted son Mahmud also died around this time. With the deaths of so many rivals, Abu Sa'id now had the resources to extend his dominion up to Mazandaran and Sistan.  The sultan even succeeded in conquering Badakhshan, a region which Timur himself had gained only nominal suzerainty over.

Nevertheless, other Timurid princes remained who continued to challenge Abu Sa'id's rule. In 1454, Uways Mirza, a descendant of Timur's eldest son Umar Shaikh, started an uprising with the aid of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, Abu Sa'id's erstwhile ally, during which the latter suffered a serious defeat. Abu Sa'id faced similar threats from another descendant of Umar Shaikh, Husayn Bayqara. The latter had previously captured Gorgan from a Qara Qoyunlu chief when Jahan Shah had withdrawn from the region. Although Husayn Bayqara initially swore fealty to Abu Sa'id, but when his overlord was distracted by a rebellion in 1460, Husayn Bayqara occupied Mazandaran and then laid siege to Herat the following year. Although he was later expelled from these lands, Husayn Bayqara nevertheless continued to make raids into Abu Sa'id's territories with impunity. 

In 1461, Muhammad Juki, a son of Abdal-Latif, also rose in rebellion. Muhammad Juki pillaged his way through Transoxiana before occupying the city of Shahrukhiyya. Abu Sa'id was forced to launch an extended siege Shahrukhiyy which lasted from November 1462 to September 1463.

Towards the end of 1467, Abu Sa'id received word of the death of Jahan Shah at the hands of Uzun Hasan, the ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu, a kingdom which had previously been the traditional allies of the Timurids. Abu Sa'id, in spite of his warm relations with Jahan Shah, had never truly abandoned hopes of recapturing the western territories which had previously been conquered by the Qara Qoyunlu. Seeing these lands now being absorbed by the Aq Qoyunlu, Abu Sa'id was aware that any chance of reclaiming them was unlikely if Uzun Hasan's rise was not checked. Therefore, under the pretext of responding to Jahan Shah's son's, Hasan Ali's, appeal for aid, Abu Sa'id launched a campaign against the Aq Qoyunlu in February 1468.

It seems that this campaign was an impulsive undertaking, with little initial planning being involved. This became clear when Abu Sa'id began to advance without waiting for all his troops to arrive, thus failing to ensure that he had adequate reserves. Though he did manage to dislodge the Aq Qoyunlu governors of Iraq-i Ajam and Fars, as well as having his authority recognized in areas such as Gilan, he did not do enough to establish order in the hinterland as he advanced. Some important strongholds were not captured and were even bypassed entirely, such as the city of Rayy. He also paid little attention to declarations of friendship and peaceful intentions from Uzun Hasan which reached him en route.

However, Abu Sa'id's situation during this time was relatively favorable. Following Jahan Shah's death, there were a fair number of his former amirs who were eager to support a new leader in a fight against Uzun Hasan. Therefore, upon the arrival of the Timurid army in Miyana, Abu Sa'id was joined by these amirs as well as 50,000 Turkmen troops. Jahan Shah's sons Yusuf and Hasan Ali, as well as the latter's son Amirzada Ali, also lent their support. When the army reached the banks of the Araxes, the Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar also joined in the coalition.

In spite of this strength, the Timurid army soon found itself in a dangerous situation before any true fighting was engaged. Already suffering from difficulties posed by the Azerbaijani winter, the troops began to face serious supply issues. This was due to the supply routes back to Khorasan, stretching over 1200 miles, being vulnerable to disruption. A supply column was intercepted by Uzun Hasan, who also blocked off access to ships carrying provisions from Shirvan. In addition to this, Uzun Hasan quickly succeeded in blocking all routes through which reinforcements could be brought, and mounted attacks from Ray against Timurid communications. The lack of food, winter clothing, riding and transport animals as well as continual surprise raids by the Aq Qoyunlu undermined the morale of Abu Sa'id's troops. This worsened when Uzun Hasan convinced Farrukh Yassar to defect from the Timurids, resulting in a large number of desertions.

The demoralized and depleted army marched via Ardabil into the Mugan steppes, where they were met by the Aq Qoyunlu troops. In the ensuing disastrous Battle of Qarabagh, Abu Sa'id suffered heavy losses and was taken prisoner. Uzun Hasan handed the captive sultan over to Yadgar Muhammad Mirza, a Timurid who had been taking refuge with him. In vengeance for the execution of his great-grandmother Gawhar Shad twelve years earlier, Yadgar Muhammad Mirza had Abu Sa'id executed on February 8, 1469.  Afterwards, Uzun Hasan sent Abu Sa'id's decapitated head to Qaitbay, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, who gave it an Islamic burial.  

Abu Sa'id's death resulted in the final loss of all Timurid lands west of Khorasan. What remained of the empire was divided among various princes. Abu Sa'id's eldest son Sultan Ahmad received Samarkand, while his second son Sultan Mahmud gained Badakhshan and Hissar. A third son, Ulugh Beg II, became ruler of Kabul and Ghazni while the fourth, Umar Shaikh, inherited Ferghana. However, the greatest of the new Timurid rulers was not one of Abu Sa'id's sons, but rather Husayn Bayqara, who reigned from his former overlord's capital of Herat.

Abu Sa'id was able to bring stability to the internal situation of his empire, in a region that had previously been subject to the conflicts of multiple bellicose factions. However, this was not achieved without considerable bloodshed, with his advent to power being accompanied by murders and executions which surpassed in cruelty even those seen during Timur's reign. The scholar Khwandamir reports that court officials were deposed and sometimes killed for misappropriating funds, including Abu Sa'id's vizier Qutb al-Din Simnani. When the army tax-collector Khwaja Mu'izz al-Din and moneychanger Shaikh Ahmad were accused of bribery and extortion in 1462, Abu Sa'id had the pair brutally executed. Shaikh Ahmad was skinned alive at the gates of Herat, while Khwaja Mu'izz al-Din was boiled in a cauldron at the foot of the citadel. Women could also be caught up in the court intrigues. This includes Abu Sa'id's execution of Gawhar Shad, which was viewed negatively by contemporary chroniclers.

Abu Sa'id is generally seen as a typical representative of the Turkmen military aristocracy. His main supporter to power was the Arghuns, a Turk tribe which had early on elected him as their chief and upon whom he counted for support in his political and military ventures.  In return, the tribe was greatly favored, with it being notable that Abu Sa'id's chief wife was the daughter of an Arghun lord. He consolidated his power through the granting of fiefs, which he provided generously to leading members of the tribe, his sons, as well as secular and religious dignitaries.

Abu Sa'id's rule was also buoyed by the support of the religious classes. His policies were subsequently greatly influenced by Islamic dervishes, who tended to oppose the cultural expressions which marked the reign of his predecessor Ulugh Beg. The most prominent among these dervishes was the Sufi Naqshbandi shaikh, Ubaydullah al-Ahrar, with whom the sultan shared a close relationship. Under Ahrar's encouragement, Abu Sa'id re-instituted sharia law in Samarkand and Bukhara, and removed taxes on commerce which could not be reconciled with religious doctrine. It was also partially through the shaikh's persuasion that Abu Sa'id launched his final, fatal campaign against the Aq Qoyunlu. However, another powerful dervish, Burhan al-Din, titled "Shaikh al-Islam", also held great power in the royal court. Unlike Ahrar, Burhan al-Din sought to preserve the traditions of Ulugh Beg. Abu Sa'id made use of the authority of either shaikh depending on the circumstance. Ahrar's influence held sway among the common people as well as the army, while Burhan al-Din's cultural interests more closely aligned with that of the government, which proved useful when faced with popular uprisings.

It is perhaps in response to these types of uprisings that Abu Sa'id developed a special interest in agriculture and the welfare of peasants. Among other policies, he began tax provisions which favored agriculture and made improvements to existing irrigation systems. In regard to the latter, his vizier Qutb al-Din Simnani was particularly active in the construction of the Juy-i Sultani Canal to the north of Herat.

Abu Sa'id himself does not seem to have personally engaged in large-scale building projects, perhaps because of the time he spent on campaigns.  However, there are some works which have been credited to him. This includes the Aq Saray (white palace) in Herat, which shifted the royal living space to outside the city walls, marking a conscious break with the past. Other public works attributed to him include repairs to the Gulistan dam while at the same time appropriating the lands it watered.  Buildings include an aiwan at the Musalla in Herat, repairs to Ghar-i Karukh which includes an inscription, and construction of a spa and bath at Uba (Obeh), a "resort for the Timurids" in their summer quarters.

Views on Abu Sa'id tend to be favorable based on his success in maintaining a large, cohesive dominion for nearly two decades, in spite of being involved in a near continual state of warfare. The 15th century historian Mir-Khvand in his Rawzat as-safa' described Abu Sa'id as "supreme amongst the princes of the House of Timur in high enterprise, lofty rank and perfect discernment. He was a friend and patron of scholars, theologians and men of letters, and during the period of his rule the lands of Turkistan, Turan, Khorasan, Zabulistan, Sistan and Mazandaran attained the zenith of prosperity."

However, in spite of his achievements, Abu Sa'id failed in his endeavor to restore the Timurid Empire to its extent at the time of Timur, or even that of Shah Rukh. He was unable to achieve a lasting peace in his domains and within forty years of his death, nearly all his territories were lost to external invasions. However, all of this erosion of the Timurid Empire did have one positive consequence. The Timurid losses eventually pushed Abu Sa'id's grandson, Babur to begin his conquests in the Indian subcontinent, leading to the foundation of the Mughal Empire. 

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_Mirza

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abul-Qasim_Babur_Mirza

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_Mirza

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gawhar_Shad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Rukh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Muhammad_(Timurid)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shah-Rokh-Timurid-ruler-of-Iran-and-Turkistan

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulugh-Beg

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The 100 Greatest Muslims (2022): 71 - Shah Rukh, Named for a Chess Move, The 15th Century Ruler of the Timurid Empire Whose Death Began A Timurid Game of Thrones

71 

Shah Rukh 

Shah Rukh or Shahrukh (Persian: Sahrokh) (b. August 20 [30], 1377, Samarkand, Timurid Empire [today in Uzbekistan] – d. March [12] 13, 1447, Rayy, Timurid Empire [today in Iran]) was the ruler of the Timurid Empire between 1405 and 1447.

He was the son of the Central Asian conqueror Timur  (Tamerlane), who founded the Timurid dynasty in 1370. However, Shah Rukh ruled only over the eastern portion of the empire established by his father, comprising most of Persia and Transoxiana, the western territories having been lost to invaders in the aftermath of Timur's death. In spite of this, Shah Rukh's empire remained a cohesive dominion of considerable extent throughout his reign, as well as a dominant power in Asia. 

Shah Rukh controlled the main trade routes between Asia and Europe, including the legendary Silk Road, and became immensely wealthy as a result. He chose to have his capital not in Samarkand (today in Uzbekistan) as his father had done, but rather in Herat (today in Afghanistan).  Herat was to become the political center of the Timurid empire and the residence of Shah Rukh's principal successors.

Shah Rukh was a great patron of the arts and sciences, which flourished under his rule. He spent his reign focusing on the stability of his lands, as well as maintaining political and economic relations with neighboring kingdoms.  Unlike his father, Shahrukh ruled the Timurid empire, not as a Turco-Mongol warlord-conqueror, but as an Islamic sultan. In dynastic chronicles he is exalted as a man of great piety, diplomacy, and modesty—a model Islamic ruler who repaired much of the physical and psychological damage caused by his father.

Shah Rukh was born on August 20, 1377, the youngest of Timur's four sons. In Persian, his name's elements have multiple meanings.  Shah means a king, a sovereign. or more specifically, shah is the title of the ruler of Persia.  Shah is also the Persian name for "the king" in the game of chess.  Rokh means the face or figure, also, the cheek, the countenance.  Rokh also means "the castle or rook" in chess.  The term rokh is also the Persian term for the chess move known as "castling". According to Ibn 'Arabshah, Timur, who was a talented chess player, was involved in a match when he received the news of Shah Rukh's birth and used the shah rokh chess move as  the name for the newborn child.

Some sources suggest that Shah Rukh's mother was the Empress Saray Mulk Khanum, formerly a Chaghatai princess and Timur's chief consort.  Saray Mulk Khanum had been captured by Timur from the harem of Amir Husayn Qara'unas several years prior to Shah Rukh's birth. However, it was stated by the 15th-century historian Khwandamir that Shah Rukh's mother was a certain Taghay Tarkhan Agha of the Qara Khitai.  Taghay Tarkhan Agha, a Tajik concubine of Timur's.  Khwandamir used a genealogical record written during Shah Rukh's reign as his source for this assertion. Regardless of his maternal origins, the prince was personally raised by Saray Mulk, alongside Timur's grandson Khalil Sultan. 

Timur appears not to have had particularly close relations with Shah Rukh, despite the latter never having incurred his displeasure. In 1397, Shah Rukh was appointed governor of Khorasan by his father, with his viceregal capital being Herat (in what is now Afghanistan).  Although Khorasan was a significant region, this was also the same post that had been awarded to Shah Rukh's brother Miran Shah when Miran Shah was thirteen years old. Shah Rukh was never promoted beyond this position during his father's lifetime.  Additionally, during Timur's campaign to China, Shah Rukh's young sons took pride of place in the procession while Shah Rukh himself was passed over.

Historical sources give no explanation for their relationship, though there is some evidence which suggests that it was Shah Rukh's ancestry, his being the son of a concubines as opposed to being the son of a freeborn wife, which colored Timur's view of his fourth son.  Alternatively, there have been suggestions that Timur believed Shah Rukh did not possess the personal qualities required for ruling since the prince, by this point, had acquired a reputation for excessive modesty as well as personal piety.  It might also have been Shah Rukh's Islamic adherence and subsequent rejection of the laws of Genghis Khan, laws which had always been so strongly revered by Timur, that resulted in the alienation of Shah Rukh from his father.

Shah Rukh, alongside most of the royal family, accompanied Timur west in his campaign against the Ottoman Empire, which culminated in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Shah Rukh commanded the left wing of the army, Miran Shah the right and Timur himself in the center. The vanguard was headed by two of Shah Rukh's nephews. The battle resulted in a Timurid victory, as well as the capture and subjugation of the Ottoman Sultan, Bayezid I. 

Timur died in 1405, whilst leading his army east in a campaign against the Ming Dynasty.  Timur was reported to have said on his deathbed that he "had no other desire than to see the Mirza Shah Rukh once more" and had lamented the fact that he did not have time to do so.

Nevertheless, Timur had no unambiguously appointed heir at the time of his death. As a result, a succession dispute erupted among his surviving sons and grandsons. Khalil Sultan (son of Miran Shah and grandson of Timur) proclaimed himself emperor at Tashkent soon after his grandfather's death and seized the royal treasury, as well as Timur's imperial capital Samarkand. Shah Rukh marched his army out of Herat to the Oxus river but made no offensive move against his nephew at this point. This was likely due to Miran Shah, Khalil Sultan's father, who posed a serious threat as he, along with his other son Abu Bakr, had led an army out of Azerbaijan in support of the younger prince. However, Miran Shah and Abu Bakr were both forced to withdraw prior to joining with Khalil Sultan due to invasions to their rear by the Jalayirids and the Qara Qoyunlu,  who took advantage of the death of the old emperor to seize territory. Miran Shah was killed in battle in 1408 while attempting to repel the invaders, with Abu Bakr dying similarly the year after.

In the years following Timur's death, Shah Rukh and Khalil Sultan had a series of unproductive negotiations as well as many military encounters, with Khalil Sultan frequently emerging victorious. During this time, other pretenders also pursued their own claims to the throne. Among these was Sultan Husayn Tayichiud, a maternal grandson of Timur who later aligned himself with Khalil Sultan, before betraying him in order to reassert his own claim. Sultan Husayn was defeated by his former ally and fled to Shah Rukh, who had him executed, with his body parts being displayed in the bazaars of Herat.  Two more of Timur's grandsons, Iskandar and Pir Muhammad, also made bids for the throne. They were defeated by Shah Rukh and Khalil Sultan respectively, with each being spared by their subjugator. Pir Muhammad was later assassinated by one of his nobles in 1407, while Iskandar was executed in 1415 following a failed rebellion.

It was not until 1409 that the war started to turn in Shah Rukh's favor. During this time, Khalil Sultan began to lose support among his emirs in Samarkand. His wife, Shadi Mulk, had been given a large amount of authority in court.  Under her influence, low-ranking individuals were given high positions instead of Timur's old nobles. Additionally, several of the old emperor's widows and concubines were remarried (somewhat forcefully) to men of undistinguished backgrounds.

Following a famine which further spread discontent among the populace, Khalil Sultan was eventually taken captive by the powerful emir Khudaidad Hussain, leader of the Dughlat tribe and a former mentor of the prince.  Hussain took Khalil Sultan to Ferghana and had him proclaimed ruler in Andijan.  Samarkand, having been left abandoned, was taken unopposed by Shah Rukh. When Shah Rukh later captured Shadi Mulk, Khalil Sultan was forced to go to his uncle in Samarkand and submit to him. Khalil Sultan had his wife (Shadi Mulk) returned to him and was appointed governor of Rayy, but died in 1411, with Shadi Mulk committing suicide soon thereafter.

Following the deaths of Khalil Sultan, Sultan Husayn and Pir Muhammad, Shah Rukh had no immediate Timurid rivals to contest his rule and he began his reign as Timur's successor. However, rather than ruling from Samarkand as his father had done, Shah Rukh held court in Herat, which had formerly been his vice-regal capital. Samarkand was instead bestowed on his eldest son Ulugh Beg, who was appointed governor of Transoxiana. 

The new emperor began his reign by launching expeditions against regions which had begun to break away during the war of succession. Fars, which was held by Shah Rukh's nephew Bayqara, was taken in 1414. Two years later Kirman, which had been ruled as an independent kingdom by Sultan Uwais Barlas since 1408, was also subdued. The area under Shah Rukh's rule continued to be extended and consolidated over the following years, either through voluntary subjugation by minor rulers or through alliances. By 1420, the eastern portion of Timur's empire, as well as central and southern Persia, had been brought under Shah Rukh's rule.

However, despite Shah Rukh's successes, the western portion of the empire, including Azerbaijan and Mesopotamia, remained out of his control. These were held by Qara Yusuf of the Qara Qoyunlu (Black Sheep Turkoman), who had defeated and killed Shah Rukh's brother Miran Shah several years earlier. With the conquests of several prominent cities such as Baghdad, Qazvin and Diyarbakir, the Qara Qoyunlu had established themselves as dangerous neighbors to the Timurids.  This threat was one which remained unresolved for decades. 

Shah Rukh made many attempts to pacify his western border, both through political and military means (having launched three campaigns against Azerbaijan), none of which proved entirely successful.

Qara Yusuf died during the first of the campaigns in November 1420, which ended in the Timurid capture of Azerbaijan and Armenia. However, less than a year later Shah Rukh was forced to face off a rebellion by the late Turkoman prince's sons. One of these sons, Qara Iskander, continued his attempts to reassert Turkoman authority over the following years, necessitating the second campaign in 1429. This too resulted in a Timurid victory and the installation of a Qara Qoyunlu prince, Abu Said, as a puppet ruler. However, Qara Iskander reoccupied the city of Tabriz (today in Iran) two years later and had Abu Said executed.

The occupation of Tabriz and the execution of Abu Said prompted Shah Rukh's third and final campaign in 1434, in which Qara Iskander was once more forced to flee. Qara Iskander was later assassinated by his son Qubad in the fortress of Alinja (in Azerbaijan).  Although Shah Rukh's campaign did not result in a final resolution of the Turkoman issue, it did achieve stability in the region for the remainder of Shah Rukh's reign with the installation of Qara Iskander's less bellicose brother Jahan Shah as the Turkoman ruler.

The Hurufis were a Sufi sect who based their doctrine on the mysticism of letters.  In the late 14th century, the group was accused of heresy by traditional Islamic scholars.  As a result, in 1394 the founder of the movement, Fazlallah Astarabadi, was arrested and executed on Timur's orders by his son Miran Shah. The death of their leader led Astarabadi's followers to have a specific hatred against the Timurids. 

While leaving a mosque in 1426, Shah Rukh became the victim of an assassination attempt. The attacker, Ahmed Lur, approached the emperor under the pretense of presenting a petition, before stabbing him in the stomach. Lur, however, failed to give a fatal blow and was quickly killed by Shah Rukh's servant.  Shah Rukh recovered within a few days and an investigation was launched, which linked Lur to the Hurufis as well as to the family of Astarabadi.

There was an immediate backlash against the sect, which resulted in the execution of Astarabadi's grandson, Azud. High-ranking members of the group were subject to extensive interrogations. These eventually extended beyond the sect, with many intellectuals residing in Herat having to defend themselves against accusations of blasphemy. These included the Persian historian Sharaf-ud-din Ali Yazdi, author of the Zafarnama, and his teacher Sain-ud-din Turka. The prominent poet and Sufi, Qasem-e Anvar was expelled from the capital on Shah Rukh's orders. These accusations even went beyond Shah Rukh's court in Herat, with Ma'ruf-i Khattat, a prominent calligrapher under the patronage of Prince Baysunghur, also being arrested and interrogated.

The extent to which the Hurufis were involved in the assassination attempt has not yet been clearly established. However, the subsequent purges served to worsen the already strained relations between the Timurid court and the intellectuals of the empire.

In the early part of his reign, in what was likely an attempt to stave off rebellion amongst his relations, Shah Rukh regularly made transfers between the governorships they held. For example, Khalil Sultan was moved from Samarkand to Rayy, Umar Mirza from Azerbaijan to Astrabad, and Iskandar Mirza from Ferghana to Hamadan to Shiraz. 

These attempts did not prove to be entirely successful, as Shah Rukh had to repeatedly suppress rebellions by his various family members. Iskandar Mirza, after encouraging his brother to revolt in 1413, himself rebelled and devastated the cities of Isfahan and Kerman.  Bayqara, after his initial defeat in Fars, rebelled once more soon after in Shiraz. These insurrections even continued into Shah Rukh's old age. In 1446, at nearly seventy years old, he had to march against his grandson Sultan Muhammad, who had revolted in the empire's western provinces.

Shah Rukh's reign saw a marked improvement in economic standards and cultural achievements in many areas of the empire. Although this may partly be accredited to Shah Rukh's more diplomatic character in contrast to the ruthlessness of Timur, evidence does not assign Shah Rukh with superior skill as a statesman. It is instead believed that other influences on his government led to the relative success of his rule. These include his empress, Gawhar Shad, who along with her sons and some state officials, maintained orderly continuity of state affairs. Some of the highest state officials appear to have been unusually talented individuals who were able to endure in their positions for several decades. These include Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah, who was supreme commander of the army for thirty-five years, Ghiyath al-Din Pir Ahmad Khvafi,  supreme secretary for thirty-one years and Amir Alika Kokultash, head of state finance for forty-three years.

In regards to his policies, Shah Rukh distanced himself from Timur, with less importance being placed on Mongol concepts of authority. He abandoned the institution of having a figurehead Khan and replaced the Mongol tribunals with sharia courts. Like his father, Shah Rukh was married to a Mongol princes - Malikat Agha, daughter of Khizr Khoja and widow of his brother Umar Shaikh Mirza I.   Shah Rukh did not however, claim the title of Kuregen (son-in-law) which had been enjoyed by Timur. He similarly did not employ Timur's title of Amir, instead adopting the Islamic and Persian styles of Sultan and Padshah. 

Shah Rukh's religious advisor Jalal-Din al-Qayini, described the abolishment of the Mongol tribunals in 1411: "His Majesty’s correct thinking on the subject of giving currency to the Sharia and reviving the customs of the Sunna has progressed so far at this time that, in Dhul-Qada 813 (i.e., February–March 1411), he abolished the yarghu court of investigation and the customs of the törä which had been observed by Turko-Mongolian rulers since ancient times."

The Timurid author Sain ad-Din Ali Turka Isfahani praised Shah Rukh for ruling by Islamic Law in the following words: “Absolutely everyone with a legal case has it heard in accordance with the Sharia, and thanks to the felicity of the favour of this Faith-promoting padshah (i.e. Shahrukh), not a trace has remained anywhere of the Yarghu Tribunal which (God preserve us!) had for a long time exercised its tyranny over the minds of rulers and polluted the lands of Islam, and no creature has the power [to conduct] this type of interrogation except in secret."

Shah Rukh's wife, Gawhar Shad, funded the construction of two mosques and theological colleges in Mashhad and Herat. The Gawhar Shad Mosque was finished in 1418. The mixed ethnic origins of the ruling dynasty led to a distinctive character in its cultural outlook, which was a combination of Persian civilization and art, with borrowings from China, and literature written in Persian as well as Chagatay (a now extinct Turkic language) and Arabic. Shah Rukh commissioned the production of a number of historical and geographic works by Hafiz-i Abru.  Among them is Tariḵ-e Sahroḵ(i), the history of Shah Rukh's reign through 1413-14 (816 AH). It was later incorporated by its author into larger "universal history" compilations, Majmuʿa-ye Ḥafeẓ-e Abru (a universal history work) and Majmaʿ al-tawariḵ [al-solṭani(ya)] (section Zobdat al-tawariḵ-e Baysongori).

During Shah Rukh's reign, relations between the Timurid state and Ming China, under the rule of the Yongle Emperor and his descendants, were normalized. This was contrasted by the preceding era of Timur and the Hongwu Emperor (the first emperor of Ming China) who almost started a war with each other (which was only averted by the death of Timur). Chinese embassies, led by Chen Cheng, visited Samarkand and Herat several times in 1414–1420, while a large embassy sent by Shah Rukh (and immortalized by its diarist, Ghiyath-ud-din Naqqash) travelled to Beijing in 1419–22 and were hosted with lavish banquets and the exchange of gifts. Shah Rukh sent two letters in Arabic and Persian to the Yongle emperor inviting him to Islam and praising the virtues of Islamic Law (as opposed to the Yasa - the Mongolian legal code proclaimed by Genghis Khan). The letters were also meant to assert Shah Rukh's independence and to clarify that the Timurids were not the vassals of the Ming dynasty.

Through his promotion of commercial and political relations with neighboring kingdoms, Shah Rukh also maintained contact with several other contemporary rulers. Monarchs of the Aq Qoyunlu, India, Hurmuz and (in the early part of his reign) the Ottoman Empire paid homage to him.  Successive Sultans of Delhi, starting with Khizr Khan, exchanged embassies with the Timurid court and swore their loyalty to the emperor, while the Sultan of Bengal, Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah, had sought his military support.  Relations with the Mamluks of Egypt, however, were increasingly tense due to Shah Rukh's attempts to assert dominance. They eventually normalized on the ascension of Sultan Jaqmaq, under whom the two rulers were amicable, but equal.

Soon after suppressing Sultan Muhammad's revolt, Shah Rukh, by this point weakened by ill-health, died in his winter quarters in Rayy in March 1447. Despite initial attempts to conceal it, news of the emperor's death quickly spread. Chaos erupted in the military camp, rendering transport of Shah Rukh's body to the capital for burial impossible. It was only on the third day following his death that the body, accompanied by the now-dowager empress Gawhar Shad and Shah Rukh's grandson Abdal-Latif, began its journey east. However, within a few days, Abdal-Latif took both his grandmother and the corpse hostage, possibly in the hopes of launching his own bid for the vacant throne, or to support that of his father, Shah Rukh's last surviving son, Ulugh Beg.  Ala al-Dawla, another grandson, defeated his cousin's troops and liberated Gawhar Shad, and afterwards had Shah Rukh interred in the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum in Herat. When Ulugh Beg captured the city the following year, he ordered his father's body to be exhumed before reburying it with Timur's in the Gur-e-Amir in Samarkand. 

The succession struggle among Shah Rukh's family continued for several years, initially between Ulugh Beg and Ala al-Dawla, in which the former (Ulugh Beg) emerged victorious. However, Ulugh Beg was murdered by his son Abdal-Latif in 1449 and, in the subsequent civil wars, control of the Timurid Empire passed from Shah Rukh's descendants.

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Shah Rukh's Family Legacy

Ulugh Beg 

Mirza Muhammad Taraghay bin Shahrukh, better known as Ulugh Beg (b. March 22, 1394, Sultaniyeh, Timurid Empire, [now Soltaniyyeh, Zanjan Province, Iran] – d. October 27, 1449, Samarkand, Timurid Empire [now Samarqand Region, Uzbekistan]), was a Timurid sultan (r. 1447-49), as well as an astronomer and a mathematician.  

 

Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry, as well as his general interests in the arts and intellectual activities.  Ulugh Beg spoke five languages: Arabic, Persian, Turkic, Mongolian, and a small amount of Chinese. During his rule (first as a governor, then outright) the Timurid Empire achieved the cultural peak of the Timurid Renaissance through his attention and patronage. Samarkand was captured and given to Ulugh Beg by his father Shah Rukh. 

Ulugh Beg built the great Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand between 1424 and 1429. It was considered by scholars to have been one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world at the time and the largest in Central Asia. Ulugh Beg was subsequently recognized as the most important observational astronomer from the 15th century by many scholars. He also built the Ulugh Beg Madrasah (1417–1420) in Samarkand and Bukhara, transforming the cities into cultural centers of learning in Central Asia. 

However, Ulugh Beg's scientific expertise was not matched by his skills in governance. During his short reign, he failed to establish his power and authority. As a result, other rulers, including his family, took advantage of his lack of control, and he was subsequently overthrown and assassinated.

Ulugh Beg was a grandson of the great conqueror and king, Timur (Tamerlane) (1336–1405), and the eldest son of Shah Rukh, both of whom came from the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Transoxiana (now Uzbekistan).  His mother was a noblewoman named Gawhar Shad, daughter of a member of the representative Turkic tribal aristocracy, Ghiyasuddin Tarkhan.

Ulugh Beg was born in Sultaniyeh during his grandfather's invasion of Persia.  He was given the name Mirza Muhammad Taraghay.  Ulugh Beg, the name he most commonly known by, was not truly a personal name, but rather a moniker, which can be loosely translated as "Great Ruler" (compare modern Turkish ulu, "great", and bey, "chief") and is the Turkic equivalent of Timur's Perso-Arabic title Amir-e Kabir.

As a child he wandered through a substantial part of the Middle East and India as his grandfather expanded his conquests in those areas. After Timur's death, Shah Rukh moved the empire's capital to Herat (in modern Afghanistsan). Sixteen-year-old Ulugh Beg subsequently became the governor of the former capital of Samarkand in 1409. In 1411, he was named the sovereign ruler of the whole of Mavarannahr.  

The teenage ruler set out to turn the city into an intellectual center for the empire. Between 1417 and 1420, he built a madrasa ("university" or "institute") on Registan Square in Samarkand (currently in Uzbekistan), and he invited numerous Islamic astronomers and mathematicians to study there. The madrasa building still survives. 

Astronomy piqued Ulugh Beg's interest when he visited the Maragheh Observatory at a young age. This observatory, located in Maragheh, Iran, is where the well-known astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi practiced.

In 1428, Ulugh Beg built an enormous observatory, similar to Tycho Brahe's later Uraniborg as well as Taqi al-Din's observatory in Constantinople.  Lacking telescopes to work with, he increased his accuracy by increasing the length of his sextant; the so-called Fakhri sextant had a radius of about 36 meters (118 feet) and the optical separability of 180" (seconds of arc). The Fakhri sextant was the largest instrument at the observatory in Samarkand. There were many other astronomical instruments located at the observatory, but the Fakhri sextant is the most well-known instrument there. The purpose of the Fakhri sextant was to measure the transit altitudes of the stars. This was a measurement of the maximum altitude above the horizon of the stars. It was only possible to use this device to measure the declination of celestial objects. The observatory built by Ulugh Beg was the most pervasive and well-known observatory throughout the Islamic world.

With the instruments located in the observatory in Samarkand, Ulugh Beg composed a star catalog consisting of 1018 stars, which is eleven fewer stars than are present in the star catalog of Ptolemy. Ulugh Beg utilized dimensions from al-Sufi and based his star catalog on a new analysis that was autonomous from the data used by Ptolemy. Throughout his life as an astronomer, Ulugh Beg came to realize that there were multiple mistakes in the work and subsequent data of Ptolemy that had been in use for many years.

Ulugh Beg compiled the 1437 Zij-i-Sultani of 994 stars, perhaps the greatest star catalog between those of Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe, a work that stands alongside Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars.  The serious errors which he found in previous Arabian star catalogs (many of which had simply updated Ptolemy's work, adding the effect of precession to the longitudes) induced him to redetermine the positions of 992 fixed stars, to which he added 27 stars from Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's catalog Book of Fixed Stars from the year 964, which were too far south for observation from Samarkand. 

In mathematics, Ulugh Beg wrote accurate trigonometric tables of sine and tangent values correct to at least eight decimal places.

In 1447, upon learning of the death of his father, Shah Rukh, Ulugh Beg went to Balkh.  In Balkh, he heard that Ala al-Dawla,  the son of Ulugh Beg's late brother Baysunghur, had claimed the rulership of the Timurid Empire in Herat. Consequently, Ulugh Beg marched against Ala al-Dawla and met him in battle at Murghab. Ulugh Beg defeated his nephew and advanced toward Herat, massacring its people in 1448. However, Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza, Ala al-Dawla's brother, came to the latter's aid and defeated Ulugh Beg.

Ulugh Beg retreated to Balkh where he found that its governor, Ulugh Beg's oldest son, Abdal-Latif Mirza, had also rebelled against him. Another civil war ensued.  Abdal-Latif recruited troops to meet his father's army on the banks of the Amu Darya (Oxus) river. However, Ulugh Beg was forced to retreat to Samarkand before any fighting took place, having heard news of turmoil in the city. Abdal-Latif soon reached Samarkand and Ulugh Beg involuntarily surrendered to his son. Abdal-Latif released his father, Ulugh Beg, from custody, allowing him to go on a pilgrimage (to go on hajj) to Mecca.  However, Abdal-Latif ensured that Ulugh Beg would never reach his destination.  Abdal-Latif had his father, Ulugh Beg, murdered.  A few days later, Abdal-Latif assassinated his brother, Abdal-Aziz, as well. 

Eventually, Ulugh Beg's reputation was rehabilitated by his nephew, Abdallah Mirza (1450–1451), who placed his remains at Timur's feet in the Gur-e-Amir in Samarkand, where they were found by Soviet archaeologists in 1941.

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Gawhar Shad

Gawhar Shad (Uzbek: Gavharshod, Persian: Gawharsad; meaning "joyful jewel" or "shining jewel"; alternative spelling: Gohar Shad; b. c. 1377, Samarkand, Timurid Empire [today in Uzbekistan] - d. July 19, 1457, Herat, Timurid Empire [today in Afghanistan]) was the chief consort of Shah Rukh, the Emperor of the Timurid Empire.

She was the daughter of Giath (Gyath) ud-Din Tarkhan, an important and influential noble during Timur's reign. According to family traditions, the title Tarkhan was given to the family by Genghiz Khan.

Gawhar Shad was married to Shah Rukh probably in 1388, certainly before 1394 when their son, Ulugh Beg was born. It was a successful marriage, according to the ballads of Herat which sing of Shah Rukh's love for her. However, little is known of their first forty years together, except what concerns Gawhar Shad's buildings. 

Along with her brothers, who were administrators at the Timurid court in Herat, Gawhar Shad played a very important role in the early Timurid history. In 1405, she moved the Timurid capital from Samarkand to Herat.  In Herat, Gawhar Shad oversaw the construction of some 300 buildings during her lifetime. 

Gawhar Shad was instrumental in the construction of Herat's  Musalla (Mousallah) Complex.  She also oversaw the construction of the mausoleum that would come to bear her name.  The Gawhar Shad Mausoleum, also known as the Tomb of Baysunghur, is an Islamic burial structure located in what is now Herat, Afghanistsan.  Built in the 15th century, the structure served as a royal tomb for members of the Timurid dynasty and is part of the Musalla Complex. 

The mausoleum was originally constructed to house the remains of Prince Baysunghur, a son of the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh by his chief wife Gawhar Shad. It was commissioned by the latter (for whom it is named) within a madrasa which also bore her name and was completed in 1438.  The mausoleum's location in the Musalla Complex was convenient due to the close vicinity to the royal residence in the Bagh-i Zaghan.  As such, over the following years, further members of Baysunghur's family were interred alongside him. These include Gawhar Shad herself and her brother Amir Sufi Tarkhan, her other son Muhammad Juki,  Baysunghur's sons Sultan Muhammad and Ala al-Dawla, as well as the latter's son Ibrahim. More distantly related Timurids, Ahmad and Shah Rukh (sons of Abu Sa'id Mirza), were also buried in the mausoleum. Baysunghur's father (Shah Rukh) was briefly interred as well, before later being transferred to the Gur-e-Amir in Samarkand. 

Under her patronage, the Persian language and Persian culture were elevated to a main element of the Timurid dynasty. She and her husband led a cultural renaissance by their lavish patronage of the arts, attracting to their court artists, architects, philosophers and poets acknowledged today among the world's most illustrious, including the poet Jami. Many exquisite examples of Timurid architecture remain in Herat today.

After the death of her husband in 1447, Gawhar Shad maneuvered her favorite grandson, Ala al-Dawla, to the throne. Over the next ten years, she managed to manipulate her young grandsons and great grandsons and became the de facto ruler of an empire stretching from the Tigris to the borders of China. When she was 80 years old, she was executed on July 19, 1457, on the order of Sultan Abu Sa'id, her great grand nephew.

According to legend, Gawhar Shad once inspected a mosque and a religious school (madrasah) in Herat accompanied by two hundred female attendants, after it had been cleared of its students, all of whom were male. However, one youth remained, having fallen asleep in his cell, and was discovered by an attendant and seduced. When Gawhar Shad found out, she ordered that all two hundred of her attendants be married to the students.

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Ala al-Dawla

Rukn-ud-din Ala al-Dawla Mirza, also Ala al-Dawla, Ala ud-Dawla and Ala ud-Daula, (b. June/July 1417, Herat, Timurid Empire [today in Afghanistan] – d. 1460, Rostamdar, Timurid Empire [today in Iran] ) was a Timurid prince and a grandson of the Central Asian ruler Shah Rukh. Following his grandfather's death, Ala al-Dawla became embroiled in the ensuing succession struggle. Though he initially possessed a strategic advantage, he was eventually overtaken by his more successful rivals. Ala al-Dawla died in exile after numerous failed attempts to gain the throne.

Ala al-Dawla was born in Herat in June/July 1417, the eldest son of Baysunghur Mirza, as well as the only one born of a free wife. His father was himself a son of the Timurid Sultan Shah Rukh.  His mother, Jan Malik Agha, a daughter of the Timurid officer Amir Chulpan Qauchin, had been previously married to Baysunghur's cousin Iskandar Mirza.  Unlike his younger brothers, Ala al-Dawla was raised at the royal court alongside his cousin Abdal-Latif Mirza by their grandmother, the empress Gawhar Shad. It is likely that Gawhar Shad and Shah Rukh were grooming the boys, the firstborns of their two eldest sons, as potential successors to the throne. However, Ala al-Dawla quickly emerged as his grandmother's favorite.

Upon Baysunghur's premature death in 1433, Ala al-Dawla, then sixteen years old, inherited his father's position as amir-e diwan, as well as his post as governor of Mazandaran, a strategic position and important in the empires defense against Uzbek tribes. However, the prince's focus appears to have been more on the affairs of the royal court rather than his official posting. The following year, he participated in his grandfather's third campaign in Azerbaijan against the Qara Qoyunlu.  

When Shah Rukh fell ill in 1444, Gawhar Shad, anticipating his death, pushed the powerful Amir Firuzshah to support Ala al-Dawla's succession to the throne, angering the other princes. When Shah Rukh recovered from his illness and learned of this, he rebuked Firuzshah, who was unable to bear the disgrace and subsequently died of illness.

Shah Rukh died of illness in his winter quarters in Rayy soon after putting down the revolt of another grandson, Sultan Muhammad, in March 1447. Gawhar Shad, who had been with Shah Rukh, quickly dispatched a message to Ala al-Dawla, who had been left as Shah Rukh's deputy in Herat, informing him of the sultan's death.  However, whilst she and Abdal-Latif were escorting the body back to Herat for burial, the latter turned on his grandmother, taking both her and the corpse hostage. His reasons for this are uncertain, with it being possible that he was attempting to preempt Ala al-Dawla and advance his own claims to the throne. Alternatively, this may have been part of a pre-arranged plan to support the claims of his father, Ulugh Beg, who was by this point Shah Rukh's last surviving son. 

Ala al-Dawla, who had been biding his time in Herat, declared himself sultan upon learning of the situation, and distributed his grandfather's treasury among the troops.  The prince's soldiers then launched an attack against his renegade cousin, freeing the dowager empress and rescuing his grandfather's body, which he then buried in the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum in Herat.

Over the following few months, the various regions of the Timurid Empire were parceled off by Shah Rukh's descendants, with the respective princes opting to remain cautious and defensive. During this time, Ala al-Dawla was in an enviable position, holding the wealthy region of Khorasan, which included his grandfather's former capital of Herat. In addition to this, he commanded the allegiance of most of Shah Rukh's nobles, as well as enjoying the favor of the influential dowager empress Gawhar Shad.

The hiatus ended in May when Ulugh Beg, who was ruling from Samarkand, took Abu Bakr, son of Muhammad Juki, captive and stationed his own troops in Balkh, which had formerly been the latter's territory. When Ulugh Beg heard that Ala al-Dawla had gathered his army in a move to block him, his amir's advised him to make peace with his nephew. Ala al-Dawla, who had just learned that his brother Abul-Qasim Babur was making raids near Herat, agreed to the proposal, allowing Ulugh Beg to keep much of Abu Bakr's former territories. As Ala al-Dawla marched to Mashhad to confront his brother's forces, the amirs of both princes urged them to make an alliance, pointing out that Ulugh Beg was aiming for total conquest over his rivals. They agreed to a border at Khabushan and returned to their respective capitals.

In the winter of that year, Ala al-Dawla became embroiled in a quarrel with Abdal-Latif, who had been stationed in Balkh as his father's governor. Ala al-Dawla launched a campaign against his cousin and plundered the region. Ulugh Beg used this as a pretext to attack and together with Abdal-Latif, he launched an invasion against his nephew in the spring of 1448. The two armies met in Tarnab,  where Ala al-Dawla was defeated, forcing him to withdraw to Abul-Qasim Babur in Astarabad.  Mashhad was occupied by Ulugh Beg's forces, while Abdal-Latif conquered Herat.  With this failure, Ala al-Dawla lost much support among his followers and never recovered his former pre-eminence. Even his grandmother Gawhar Shad appears to have doubted him, taking refuge instead with his brother Sultan Muhammad in Isfahan, bringing with her many of her relatives, nobles and a large number of troops.

By February 1449, Abul-Qasim Babur had gained control of Herat, having earlier inflicted a defeat on Ulugh Beg. Though Ala al-Dawla was still with him at this point, Abul-Qasim Babur was now undoubtedly the more prominent of the two. In spite of this, Ala al-Dawla still remained a threat due to his popularity among the population of Khorasan as well as his receiving their grandmother's (Gawhar Shad's)  continued favor.  Abul-Qasim Babur therefore opted to imprison Ala al-Dawla alongside his son Ibrahim. 

Somehow, Ala al-Dawla soon escaped, fleeing first to Ghur and then to Sistan. When his brother continued to pursue him, he retreated to Yazd, then held by Sultan Muhammad. Ala al-Dawla, alongside Gawhar Shad, encouraged Sultan Muhammad to march on Herat, which resulted in the defeat of Abul-Qasim Babur's forces and the capture of the city. Like his brother, Sultan Muhammad was concerned by Ala al-Dawla's continued support in the region and sent him away to Kabul to act as governor. However, by 1451, Ala al-Dawla had gained the support of the Arlat tribe, with whom he had marriage ties, allowing him to make another attempt for the throne. Whilst Sultan Muhammad was absent fighting their brother, Ala al-Dawla took control of Herat with the aid of the city's population. Sultan Muhammad, then facing an insurgency amongst his nobles, was unable to counteract this, instead being forced to devote resources to re-establishing his control over his central territories. 

In the meantime, Abul-Qasim Babur used this opportunity to attempt to retake Herat himself. Upon his approach, Ala al-Dawla retreated to Balkh, though even in his absence it required a long siege by Abul-Qasim Babur to gain the city's surrender.

In June of 1451, Ala al-Dawla made a bid to capture Samarkand from Abdallah Mirza, who had taken the city following the deaths of Ulugh Beg and Abdal-Latif.  Ala al-Dawla seized the cities of Shapurqan, Balkh and Hisar, from where he planned to launch his invasion. Abdallah marched out from Shahrisabz to meet him, though both armies separated without fighting, with each ruler returning to their respective cities. Ala al-Dawla then followed with another attempt to take Herat, this time while in league with the Qara Qoyunlu, which also failed. This resulted in Ala al-Dawla being blinded by Abul-Qasim Babur as punishment.

In the following years, Abdallah Mirza was executed by Abu Sa'id Mirza, a grandson of Shah Rukh's elder brother Miran Shah, while Sultan Muhammad was killed by Abul-Qasim Babur, who himself died in 1457. The latter's successor, his eleven-year-old son Mahmud, was driven out of Herat by Ala al-Dawla's son Ibrahim after a rule of only a few weeks. However, Ibrahim himself fled upon the approach of Abu Sa'id in July of 1457, though the latter failed in capturing the city. These conflicts attracted the attention of Jahan Shah, the ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu, who defeated Ibrahim near Astarabad, forcing him to withdraw to Herat, where he was soon joined by Ala al-Dawla and his forces. However, neither had the strength to resist Jahan Shah and were forced to abandon the city, which was captured in June 1458.

The following spring, the two princes made an alliance with Sultan Sanjar, who was a grandson of Shah Rukh's eldest brother Umar Shaikh, against Abu Sa'id. The two forces met in the Battle of Sarakhs, where Abu Sa'id emerged victorious. While Sultan Sanjar was captured and executed, Ala al-Dawla and his son escaped, though Ibrahim died only a few months later.  Ala al-Dawla himself died in 1460, while in exile in the Caspian province of Rostamdar.  Ala al-Dawla was buried in the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum complex in Herat, along with many of his relatives, including his grandmother (Gawhar Shad), his father (Baysunghur), his brother (Sultan Muhammad), and his son (Ibrahim).

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