Sultan Muhammad
Sultan Muhammad (b. c. 1418 – d. 1452) was the Timurid ruler of Persia and Fars from around 1447 until his death. He was the son of Baysunghur and a grandson of Shah Rukh.
During the last years of Shah Rukh's reign, Sultan Muhammad raised a revolt in the western provinces of the Timurid Empire. Shah Rukh was able to stop the revolt and capture many of its supporters in 1446, but Sultan Muhammad took refuge in Luristan (today a province in Western Iran). Following his grandfather's death, Sultan Muhammad returned from Luristan and from there assumed control of central Persia. Together with his half-brother, Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza of Khurasan, and his uncle, Ulugh Beg of Transoxiana, Sultan Muhammad became one of the three most powerful rulers of the splintering Timurid Empire.
Sultan Muhammad, eager to expand his domain, soon started a war with Abul-Qasim Babur and invaded Khurasan. At first the campaign went well. Indeed, in 1450, Sultan Muhammad defeated his brother at Mashhad, following which Abul-Qasim yielded some of his lands to him. Things soon turned south, however, and Sultan Muhammad was captured by Abul-Qasim Babur. Abul-Qasim executed Sultan Muhammad in 1452.
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Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza
Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza (b. June 7, 1422 - d. 1457, Mashhad, Timurid Empire [today in Iran]) was a Timurid ruler in Khurasan (r. 1449–1457). He was the son of Ghiyath-ud-din Baysunghur ibn Shah Rukh Mirza, and thus a great-grandson of Timur.
Abul-Qasim Babur was one of the many people involved in the succession struggle that took place during Shah Rukh's last years. Together with Khalil Sultan (a great-great-grandson of Timur), he plundered the baggage-train of the army and then made his way to Khurasan. Meanwhile, Ulugh Beg also invaded Khurasan in 1448 in an attempt to defeat Ala al-Dawla Mirza, who held Herat. Ulugh Beg defeated Ala al-Dawla at Tarnab and took Mashhad, while Ulugh Beg's son, Abdal-Latif Mirza, conquered Herat. Ala al-Dawla Mirza fled to south-western Afghanistan.
Despite his success in Khurasan, Ulugh Beg felt Transoxiana, where he had already ruled for decades, to be more important, and soon left the area. On the way back to Transoxiana, Abul-Qasim Babur sent a force that inflicted heavy losses on Ulugh Beg's army.
With a power vacuum now in Khurasan, Abul-Qasim Babur quickly seized control. Mashhad and Herat fell to him in 1449. Ala al-Dawla Mirza occasionally raided the area but he was not a significant factor. Together with Ulugh Beg and Sultan Muhammad (who gained control of central Persia), Abul-Qasim Babur became one of the three important post-Shah Rukh Timurid rulers. However, this balance of power was soon upset by Sultan Muhammad, who invaded Khurasan. The campaign started out badly for Abul-Qasim Babur. A defeat at Mashhad in March 1450 convinced him to cede parts of his territory. However, Abul-Qasim Babur soon recovered and took Sultan Muhammad prisoner. Abul-Qasim subsequently executed Sultan Muhammad and proceeded to march to Shiraz to take control of Sultan Muhammad's lands.
At this point, Jahan Shah of the Black Sheep Turkmen ended his loyalty to the Timurids. Jahan Shah quickly put Qum and Saveh to siege. Abul-Qasim Babur began to march against Jahan Shah but was forced to return to Herat, due to the overwhelming superiority of the Black Sheep's armies and a plot hatched against him by Ala al-Dawla Mirza. Most of Persia was taken from the Timurids by 1452, with the exception of Abarquh, which was conquered by the Black Sheep in 1453. While Kirman was temporarily conquered some time later and a few attempts were made to seize Rayy, Persia as a whole was never retaken by the Timurids.
In 1454, Abul-Qasim Babur invaded Transoxiana, then under the control of Abu Sa'id Mirza in retaliation for the latter's seizure of Balkh. Abul-Qasim Babur quickly laid siege to Samarkand. The conflict between the two soon ended, however, with the Oxus (Amu Darya) River agreed to as the border. This remained in effect until Abul-Qasim Babur's death in 1457.
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Abdal-Latif Mirza
Shah Rukh died of illness in his winter quarters in Rayy soon after putting down the revolt of his grandson, Sultan Muhammad, in March 1447. The death of Shah Rukh initiated a long period of succession wars -- wars in which his widow, Gawhar Shad, would play an integral part.
Upon Shah Rukh's death, Gawhar Shad, who had been with Shah Rukh when he died, quickly dispatched a message to her favorite grandson, Ala al-Dawla, who had been left as Shah Rukh's deputy in Herat. In this message, Gawhar Shad informed Ala al-Dawla of Shah Rukh's death in Rayy and of her plans to bring the Shah's body back to Herat. However, while she and another grandson, Abdal-Latif Mirza, were escorting the body back to Herat for burial, Abdal-Latif turned on his grandmother, taking both her and the corpse of Shah Rukh hostage.
Abdal Latif's reasons for this are uncertain, but it appears that he was attempting to preempt Ala al-Dawla from becoming the Shah and to advance his own claims to the throne. Alternatively, this may have been part of a pre-arranged plan to support the claims of Abdal Latif's father, Ulugh Beg, who was by this point Shah Rukh's last surviving son.
Abdal-Latif Mirza (b. c. 1420 – d. May 9, 1450, Samarkand, Timurid Empire [today in Uzbekistan]) was the great-grandson of the Central Asian (Timurid) emperor Timur. He was also the grandson of Shah Rukh and was the third son of Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler of Transoxiana (modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and parts of Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan).
Having been given the governorship of Balkh, Abdal-Latif Mirza served under his father, Ulugh Beg. During the succession struggle that followed the death of Shah Rukh, Abdal-Latif occupied Herat, although after Ulugh Beg left the city at the end of 1448 it was conquered by Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza.
Abdal-Latif Mirza did not remain loyal to his father. Angry over the fact that he was to be passed over in the transfer of rule of Samarkand, Abdal-Latif revolted while Ulugh Beg was marching to retake Khorasan. He defeated his father at Dimashq, near Samarkand, in the fall of 1449.
Ulugh Beg later decided to surrender himself, and Abdal-Latif Mirza granted him permission to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca. However, while Ulugh Beg was on his way, Ulugh was murdered on the orders of Abdal-Latif. This patricide earned Abdal-Latif Mirza the infamous nickname Padarkush, or Pidarkush (from the Persian "killer of his father"). A few days later, Abdal-Latif also had his brother 'Abd al-'Aziz killed.
In this manner, Abdal-Latif became ruler of Transoxiana. A somewhat pious person, he gained the support of the local religious groups, but this did not save him from a conspiracy hatched against him by the amirs. His reign lasted for only six months. He was murdered at the age of 30 in 1450 and was succeeded by his cousin, 'Abdullah Mirza.
‘Abdullah Mirza (b. after 1410 – d. June 1451) was a short-lived ruler of the Timurid Empire, which encompassed the territory shared by present-day Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, along with substantial areas of India, Mesopotamia and Caucasus.
As a member of the Timurid dynasty, 'Abdullah Mirza was a great-grandson of Timur, a grandson of Shah Rukh and Gawhar Shad, and a son of Ibrahim Sultan. Granted the governorship of Fars by his grandfather, 'Abdullah Mirza found his position threatened by his cousin Sultan Muhammad during the 1447 succession crisis which followed Shah Rukh's death, and was forced to abandon the province. As a supporter of Ulugh Beg, he was imprisoned by Abdal-Latif following the latter's rise to power. When Abdal-Latif was murdered in May 1450, 'Abdullah was released and made ruler of Samarkand, for which he was forced to lavish money upon the troops that supported him. Despite this, he did not enjoy widespread popularity.
During his relatively brief reign, a revolt supported by Sultan Muhammad's brother, Ala al-Dawla Mirza, did not seriously threaten him, but an uprising initiated by Abu Sa'id Mirza, whose home base, at the time, was in Bukhara, proved to be fatal. Marching from Tashkent to Samarkand with the support of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, Abu Sa'id Mirza defeated 'Abdullah Mirza and executed him in June, 1451, taking his place on the throne.
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Abu Sa'id Mirza
Abu Sa'id Mirza (b. 1424, Herat, Timurid Empire [today in Afghanistan] – d. February 8, 1469) was the ruler of the Timurid Empire during the mid-fifteenth century.
Born a minor prince of the Timurid dynasty, Abu Sa'id quickly established himself as the most prominent among his warring relations. Over the course of two decades, he reunified much of the Timurid Empire, which had become fractured in the aftermath of the death of his great-uncle Shah Rukh. However, Abu Sa'id's hopes of restoring the empire to its former extent at the time of Timur ultimately failed after he was killed during an invasion of what is now western Iran.
Abu Sa'id Mirza was born in 1424, the second son of the Timurid prince Muhammad Mirza by his wife Shah Islam. His father was a son of Miran Shah, himself the third son of Timur. His mother was the daughter of Suhrab Kurd and a relative of Izz al-din Shir of Hakkari, who was a former adversary of Timur's.
Abu Sa'id's father appears to have had little involvement in political matters, though Muhammad Mirza did maintain a close relationship with his influential cousin Ulugh Beg, son of the ruling sultan Shah Rukh and governor of Transoxiana. When the former visited Muhammad Mirza on his death-bed, the dying prince took Abu Sa'id's hand and placed it in Ulugh Beg's, putting the boy under his protection.
Abu Sa'id was given a role at Ulugh Beg's court, later receiving his daughter in marriage through good service. However, upon Ulugh Beg's ascension to the Timurid throne following the death of Shah Rukh, Abu Sa'id turned against his benefactor.
In 1449, while Ulugh Beg was suppressing the rebellion of his son Abdal-Latif, Abu Sa'id left his post on the northern borders and used a group of Arghun tribesmen to lead an attack on the capital Samarkand. Ulugh Beg's other son, Abdal-Aziz, retreated to the citadel and warned his father, who marched his army back to the city, forcing Abu Sa'id to retreat. However, Abdal-Latif used this distraction to his advantage, pursuing and defeating Ulugh Beg, who Abdal-Latif had assassinated soon after. Abu Sa'id led his forces against his cousin, but was also defeated, as well as being taken captive.
Abu Sa'id escaped his imprisonment in Samarkand in 1450, fleeing to Bukhara. However, he found little support there and was imprisoned, only being spared execution when news of Abdal-Latif's death reached the city. The Bukhari nobles hastened to release the prince and swore their allegiance to him, upon which he immediately marched against the new ruler, Ulugh Beg's nephew 'Abdullah Mirza. After an initial failed assault on Samarkand, Abu Sa'id and his small group of followers seized the frontier town of Yasi. When 'Abdullah marched his forces out in retaliation, Abu Sa'id appealed to the Uzbek ruler Abu'l-Khayr Khan for aid. The latter agreed and their combined forces defeated 'Abdullah in June 1451. Given that his rival ('Abdullah) was killed during the battle, the victors were able to enter Samarkand unopposed.
Abu Sa'id claimed the Timurid throne and in gratitude to the Uzbeks, gave Abu'l-Khayr Khan rich presents as well as Ulugh Beg's daughter in marriage. When Abu Sa'id annexed Balkh in 1454, another Timurid (and another grandson of Gawhar Shad), Abul-Qasim Babur of Herat, led his forces against him in response, culminating in a siege of Samarkand. However, the two sides eventually agreed on a truce, establishing the Amu Darya (Oxus) river as a border. This treaty remained in effect until Abul-Qasim Babur's death in 1457, and after Abul Qasim Babur's young (eleven year old) son and successor, Mahmud, was ousted from Herat by Ibrahim Mirza, a great-nephew of Ulugh Beg. Abu Sa'id, who desired to conquer the city as well as the surrounding region of Khorasan, led his forces against Ibrahim, forcing the latter to flee. Upon capturing Herat, Abu Sa'id had Shah Rukh's aged widow (and Abu Sa'id's great grandmother), the influential dowager-empress Gawhar Shad executed, having accused her of conspiring with Ibrahim, who was also her great-grandson.
Noting the conflict among the Timurid princes, Jahan Shah, ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu, took advantage of the situation and marched his forces into the region, capturing Herat in 1458. Jahan Shah had already had great success in conquering much of the western Timurid territories. However, as Jahan Shah was facing a revolt by his son Hasan Ali, he was forced to abandon his latest conquests, allowing the re-annexation of Khorasan by Abu Sa'id, who subsequently made Herat his capital. Friendly relations were established between the two rulers, with multiple embassy missions taking place throughout the 1460s.
During this period, Abu Sa'id continued to consolidate his power. In 1459, Abu Sa'id defeated the combined forces of three other Timurid princes, Sultan Sanjar, Ibrahim Mirza and Ala al-Dawla in the Battle of Sarakhs. Sanjar was captured and executed after the battle and the latter two died in exile in the following years. Abul-Qasim Babur's ousted son Mahmud also died around this time. With the deaths of so many rivals, Abu Sa'id now had the resources to extend his dominion up to Mazandaran and Sistan. The sultan even succeeded in conquering Badakhshan, a region which Timur himself had gained only nominal suzerainty over.
Nevertheless, other Timurid princes remained who continued to challenge Abu Sa'id's rule. In 1454, Uways Mirza, a descendant of Timur's eldest son Umar Shaikh, started an uprising with the aid of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, Abu Sa'id's erstwhile ally, during which the latter suffered a serious defeat. Abu Sa'id faced similar threats from another descendant of Umar Shaikh, Husayn Bayqara. The latter had previously captured Gorgan from a Qara Qoyunlu chief when Jahan Shah had withdrawn from the region. Although Husayn Bayqara initially swore fealty to Abu Sa'id, but when his overlord was distracted by a rebellion in 1460, Husayn Bayqara occupied Mazandaran and then laid siege to Herat the following year. Although he was later expelled from these lands, Husayn Bayqara nevertheless continued to make raids into Abu Sa'id's territories with impunity.
In 1461, Muhammad Juki, a son of Abdal-Latif, also rose in rebellion. Muhammad Juki pillaged his way through Transoxiana before occupying the city of Shahrukhiyya. Abu Sa'id was forced to launch an extended siege Shahrukhiyy which lasted from November 1462 to September 1463.
Towards the end of 1467, Abu Sa'id received word of the death of Jahan Shah at the hands of Uzun Hasan, the ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu, a kingdom which had previously been the traditional allies of the Timurids. Abu Sa'id, in spite of his warm relations with Jahan Shah, had never truly abandoned hopes of recapturing the western territories which had previously been conquered by the Qara Qoyunlu. Seeing these lands now being absorbed by the Aq Qoyunlu, Abu Sa'id was aware that any chance of reclaiming them was unlikely if Uzun Hasan's rise was not checked. Therefore, under the pretext of responding to Jahan Shah's son's, Hasan Ali's, appeal for aid, Abu Sa'id launched a campaign against the Aq Qoyunlu in February 1468.
It seems that this campaign was an impulsive undertaking, with little initial planning being involved. This became clear when Abu Sa'id began to advance without waiting for all his troops to arrive, thus failing to ensure that he had adequate reserves. Though he did manage to dislodge the Aq Qoyunlu governors of Iraq-i Ajam and Fars, as well as having his authority recognized in areas such as Gilan, he did not do enough to establish order in the hinterland as he advanced. Some important strongholds were not captured and were even bypassed entirely, such as the city of Rayy. He also paid little attention to declarations of friendship and peaceful intentions from Uzun Hasan which reached him en route.
However, Abu Sa'id's situation during this time was relatively favorable. Following Jahan Shah's death, there were a fair number of his former amirs who were eager to support a new leader in a fight against Uzun Hasan. Therefore, upon the arrival of the Timurid army in Miyana, Abu Sa'id was joined by these amirs as well as 50,000 Turkmen troops. Jahan Shah's sons Yusuf and Hasan Ali, as well as the latter's son Amirzada Ali, also lent their support. When the army reached the banks of the Araxes, the Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar also joined in the coalition.
In spite of this strength, the Timurid army soon found itself in a dangerous situation before any true fighting was engaged. Already suffering from difficulties posed by the Azerbaijani winter, the troops began to face serious supply issues. This was due to the supply routes back to Khorasan, stretching over 1200 miles, being vulnerable to disruption. A supply column was intercepted by Uzun Hasan, who also blocked off access to ships carrying provisions from Shirvan. In addition to this, Uzun Hasan quickly succeeded in blocking all routes through which reinforcements could be brought, and mounted attacks from Ray against Timurid communications. The lack of food, winter clothing, riding and transport animals as well as continual surprise raids by the Aq Qoyunlu undermined the morale of Abu Sa'id's troops. This worsened when Uzun Hasan convinced Farrukh Yassar to defect from the Timurids, resulting in a large number of desertions.
The demoralized and depleted army marched via Ardabil into the Mugan steppes, where they were met by the Aq Qoyunlu troops. In the ensuing disastrous Battle of Qarabagh, Abu Sa'id suffered heavy losses and was taken prisoner. Uzun Hasan handed the captive sultan over to Yadgar Muhammad Mirza, a Timurid who had been taking refuge with him. In vengeance for the execution of his great-grandmother Gawhar Shad twelve years earlier, Yadgar Muhammad Mirza had Abu Sa'id executed on February 8, 1469. Afterwards, Uzun Hasan sent Abu Sa'id's decapitated head to Qaitbay, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, who gave it an Islamic burial.
Abu Sa'id's death resulted in the final loss of all Timurid lands west of Khorasan. What remained of the empire was divided among various princes. Abu Sa'id's eldest son Sultan Ahmad received Samarkand, while his second son Sultan Mahmud gained Badakhshan and Hissar. A third son, Ulugh Beg II, became ruler of Kabul and Ghazni while the fourth, Umar Shaikh, inherited Ferghana. However, the greatest of the new Timurid rulers was not one of Abu Sa'id's sons, but rather Husayn Bayqara, who reigned from his former overlord's capital of Herat.
Abu Sa'id was able to bring stability to the internal situation of his empire, in a region that had previously been subject to the conflicts of multiple bellicose factions. However, this was not achieved without considerable bloodshed, with his advent to power being accompanied by murders and executions which surpassed in cruelty even those seen during Timur's reign. The scholar Khwandamir reports that court officials were deposed and sometimes killed for misappropriating funds, including Abu Sa'id's vizier Qutb al-Din Simnani. When the army tax-collector Khwaja Mu'izz al-Din and moneychanger Shaikh Ahmad were accused of bribery and extortion in 1462, Abu Sa'id had the pair brutally executed. Shaikh Ahmad was skinned alive at the gates of Herat, while Khwaja Mu'izz al-Din was boiled in a cauldron at the foot of the citadel. Women could also be caught up in the court intrigues. This includes Abu Sa'id's execution of Gawhar Shad, which was viewed negatively by contemporary chroniclers.
Abu Sa'id is generally seen as a typical representative of the Turkmen military aristocracy. His main supporter to power was the Arghuns, a Turk tribe which had early on elected him as their chief and upon whom he counted for support in his political and military ventures. In return, the tribe was greatly favored, with it being notable that Abu Sa'id's chief wife was the daughter of an Arghun lord. He consolidated his power through the granting of fiefs, which he provided generously to leading members of the tribe, his sons, as well as secular and religious dignitaries.
Abu Sa'id's rule was also buoyed by the support of the religious classes. His policies were subsequently greatly influenced by Islamic dervishes, who tended to oppose the cultural expressions which marked the reign of his predecessor Ulugh Beg. The most prominent among these dervishes was the Sufi Naqshbandi shaikh, Ubaydullah al-Ahrar, with whom the sultan shared a close relationship. Under Ahrar's encouragement, Abu Sa'id re-instituted sharia law in Samarkand and Bukhara, and removed taxes on commerce which could not be reconciled with religious doctrine. It was also partially through the shaikh's persuasion that Abu Sa'id launched his final, fatal campaign against the Aq Qoyunlu. However, another powerful dervish, Burhan al-Din, titled "Shaikh al-Islam", also held great power in the royal court. Unlike Ahrar, Burhan al-Din sought to preserve the traditions of Ulugh Beg. Abu Sa'id made use of the authority of either shaikh depending on the circumstance. Ahrar's influence held sway among the common people as well as the army, while Burhan al-Din's cultural interests more closely aligned with that of the government, which proved useful when faced with popular uprisings.
It is perhaps in response to these types of uprisings that Abu Sa'id developed a special interest in agriculture and the welfare of peasants. Among other policies, he began tax provisions which favored agriculture and made improvements to existing irrigation systems. In regard to the latter, his vizier Qutb al-Din Simnani was particularly active in the construction of the Juy-i Sultani Canal to the north of Herat.
Abu Sa'id himself does not seem to have personally engaged in large-scale building projects, perhaps because of the time he spent on campaigns. However, there are some works which have been credited to him. This includes the Aq Saray (white palace) in Herat, which shifted the royal living space to outside the city walls, marking a conscious break with the past. Other public works attributed to him include repairs to the Gulistan dam while at the same time appropriating the lands it watered. Buildings include an aiwan at the Musalla in Herat, repairs to Ghar-i Karukh which includes an inscription, and construction of a spa and bath at Uba (Obeh), a "resort for the Timurids" in their summer quarters.
Views on Abu Sa'id tend to be favorable based on his success in maintaining a large, cohesive dominion for nearly two decades, in spite of being involved in a near continual state of warfare. The 15th century historian Mir-Khvand in his Rawzat as-safa' described Abu Sa'id as "supreme amongst the princes of the House of Timur in high enterprise, lofty rank and perfect discernment. He was a friend and patron of scholars, theologians and men of letters, and during the period of his rule the lands of Turkistan, Turan, Khorasan, Zabulistan, Sistan and Mazandaran attained the zenith of prosperity."
However, in spite of his achievements, Abu Sa'id failed in his endeavor to restore the Timurid Empire to its extent at the time of Timur, or even that of Shah Rukh. He was unable to achieve a lasting peace in his domains and within forty years of his death, nearly all his territories were lost to external invasions. However, all of this erosion of the Timurid Empire did have one positive consequence. The Timurid losses eventually pushed Abu Sa'id's grandson, Babur to begin his conquests in the Indian subcontinent, leading to the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_Mirza
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abul-Qasim_Babur_Mirza
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_Mirza
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gawhar_Shad
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Rukh
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Muhammad_(Timurid)
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