The 100 Greatest Muslims (2023): 67 - Al-Shahrastani, The 12th Century Persian Historian of Religions Who Wrote The Monumental Book of Sects and Creeds

67

Al-Shahrastani

Taj al-Din Abu al-Fath Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Karim ash-Shahrastani (b. 1086 CC, Shahristan, Khorasan (a province of Persia) – d. 1153 CC, Shahristan, Khorasan), also known as Muhammad al-Shahrastani, was an influential Persian historian of religions, a historiographer, Islamic scholar, philosopher and theologian.  His book, Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of Sects and Creeds) was one of the pioneers in developing an objective and philosophical approach to the study of religions. 

Very few things are known about al-Shahrastani's life. He was born in 1086 CC, in the town of Shahristan, (Khorasan, a province of Persia) where he acquired his early traditional education. Later, he was sent to Nishapur where he studied under different masters who were all disciples of the Ash'ari theologian al-Juwayni (d. 1085). At the age of thirty, al-Shahrastani went to Baghdad to pursue theological studies and taught for three years at the prestigious Ash`ari school, al-Nizamiyya.  Afterwards, he returned to Persia where he worked as Na’ib (Deputy) of the chancellery for Sanjar, the Saljuq ruler of Khurasan.  At the end of his life, al-Shahrastani went back to live in his native town, where he died in the year 1153.

Al-Shahrastani distinguished himself by his desire to describe in the most objective way the universal religious history of humanity.

This is reflected in his Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of Sects and Creeds), a monumental work, which presents the doctrinal points of view of all the religions and philosophies which existed up to his time. The book was one of the earliest systematic studies of religion, and is noted for its non-polemical style and scientific approach.  

Al-Shahrastani's philosophical and theological thoughts manifested in his other major works, which include:

• The Nihāyat al-aqdām fī 'ilm al-kalām (The End of Steps in the Science of Theology) presents different theological discussions and shows the limits of Muslim theology (kalam).
• The Majlis is a discourse, written during the mature period of his life, delivered to a Twelver Shi'ite audience.
• The Musara`at al-Falasifa (The Struggle with Philosophers) criticizes Ibn Sina's (Avicenna's) doctrines by emphasizing some peculiar Isma'ili arguments on the division of beings.
• The Mafatih al-Asrar wa-masabih al-abrar (The Keys of the Mysteries and the Lamps of the Righteous) introduces the Qur'an and gives a complete commentary on the first two chapters of the Qur'an.

Although self-identified as an Ash'ari in terms of theology and a Shafi'i in terms of law, as can be seen in his books, Al-Milal wa al-Nihal and Nihayat al-Iqdam fi 'Ilm al-Kalam,  a few of his contemporaries accused him of covertly being an Isma'ili, and modern scholars believe that he was actually an Isma’ili practicing taqiya, or dissimulation, based on statements throughout his writings that correspond strongly with Isma’ili mysticism and its central doctrine of the Imamate. 

Al-Shahrastani was amongst those attracted by the "new preaching" (da'wah jadidah) which Hasan-i Sabbah, the Isma'ili da'i and founder of the medieval Nizari Isma'ili state, initiated. This preaching sought to spread the idea that humanity is always in need of infallible and divine teaching, which can only be provided by a divinely appointed guide. Al-Shahrastani tried to keep this a secret, but it was revealed by his student Al-Sam'ani. His works include a Quranic commentary that is infused with Isma'ili terminology, in which he hinted at his conversion by a "pious servant of God" who taught him how to find the esoteric (batin) meaning of the Qur'an. In his Kitab Al-musara'ah (Book of the wrestling match), al-Shahrastani criticizes Ibn Sina's belief that God is the involuntary necessitating cause of the world, and he also provides support for the Isma'ili thesis that God is beyond being and nonbeing.

Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of Sects and Creeds), written by al-Shahrastani (d. 1153 CE), is a non-polemical study of religious communities and philosophies that had existed up to his time, considered to be the first systematic study of religion. It was written around 1127-1128 and divides religions between sects, which have written doctrines, and creeds which do not.

In Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal, al-Shahrastani records a portrayal of Christianity very close to the orthodox tenets while continuing the Islamic narrative:

“The Christians. (They are) the community (umma) of the Christ, Jesus, son of Mary (peace upon him). He it is who was truly sent (as prophet; mab'uth) after Moses (peace upon him), and who was announced in the Torah. To him were (granted) manifest signs and notable evidences, such as the reviving of the dead and the curing of the blind and the leper. His very nature and innate disposition (fitra) are a perfect sign of his truthfulness; that is, his coming without previous seed and his speaking without prior teaching. For all the (other) prophets the arrival of their revelation was at (the age of) forty years, but revelation came to him when he was made to speak in the cradle, and revelation came to him when he conveyed (the divine message) at (the age of) thirty. The duration of his (prophetic) mission (da'wa) was three years and three months and three days."

Al-Shahrastani also explains the differences between Christians in Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal regarding the incarnation (tajassud):

"They affirmed that God has three hypostases (aqanim). They said that the Creator (may he be exalted) is one substance (jawhar), meaning by this what is self-subsistent (al-qa'im bi-n-nafs), not (what is characterized by) spatial location and physical magnitude; and he is one in substantiality, three in hypostaticity (uqnumiyya). By the hypostases they mean the attributes (sifat), such as existence, life and knowledge, and the father, the son and the holy spirit (ruh al-qudus). The (hypostasis of) knowledge clothes itself and was incarnated, but not the other hypostases."

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al-Shahrastani (edited with a translation by Alfred Guillaume) (1934). The Summa philosophiae, (Kitāb Nihāyatu ʼl-Iqdām fī ʽIlmi ʼl –Kalām). London, Oxford University Press.

al-Shahrastani (translated by A. K.Kazi and J. G.Flynn) (1984).  Muslim Sects and Divisions. The Section on Muslim Sects in Kitab al-Milal wa 'l-Nibal,  London, Kegan Paul International (reprint New York, Routledge 2013).

al-Shahrastani (translation by Wilferd Madelung and Toby Mayer of Kitāb Muṣāraʿat al-falāsifa) (2001). Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics. London, Tauris.

al-Shahrastani (by Toby Mayer with the Arabic text reproduced from the edition by M.A. Adharshab) (2009). Keys to the Arcana: Shahrastani's Esoteric Commentary on the Qur'an: A Translation of the Commentary on Surat al-Fatiha. New York, Oxford University Press.

Watt, William Montgomery (1991). Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions.  London and New York: Routledge. 

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Milal_wa_al-Nihal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shahrastani

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