Table of Contents
Appendix 1 - Caliph
Appendix 2 - Imam
Appendix 3 - Shi'a Imams and Their Derivative Sects
Appendix 4 - Ta'ifa
Appendix 5 - Taqali
Appendix 6 - Tariqa
Appendix 7 - Padshah Begum
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Appendix 1
Caliph
In Arabic, khalifah means "successor". In Islamic history the caliph was the ruler of the Muslim community.
Although khalifah and its plural khulafa' occur several times in the Qur'an, referring to humans as God's stewards or vice-regents on earth, the term did not denote a distinct political or religious institution during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. It began to acquire its later meaning and to take shape as an institution after Muhammad's death (on June 8, 632 CC), when Abu Bakr, a companion of the Prophet, and an early convert to Islam, was elected by a majority of Muslims as the leader of the Muslim community -- the umma -- and assumed the title khalifat rasul Allah -- "successor of the messenger of God". Abu Bakr's successor, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, is said to have first assumed the title khalifa Abi Bakr ("successor to Abu Bakr"), because the title khalifat khalifat rasul Allah ("the successor to the successor of the messenger of God") would have been cumbersome. 'Umar also designated himself amir al-mu'minin -- "the commander of the faithful" -- a title that became an additional customary title for succeeding rulers.
Abu Bakr and his three immediate successors are known as the "perfect" caliphs or the "rightly guided caliphs" -- khulafa al-rashidun. The rashidun caliphs combined rule is idealized by a majority of Muslims for having been based on the concepts of shura (consultation), ijma' (consensus) of Muslims, and bay'ah (allegiance). In contrast, subsequent rulers of the Muslim polity instituted dynastic rule, which violated the concept of shura -- of consultation -- and, therefore, the dynastic rule was largely regarded as illegitimate, although it often was grudgingly accepted from a pragmatic perspective.
The title of caliph was borne by the 14 Umayyad rulers of Damascus, and subsequently by the 38 'Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, whose dynasty fell before the Mongols in 1258. There were titular caliphs of 'Abbasid descent in Cairo under the Mamluks from 1258 until 1517, when the last caliph was captured by the Ottoman sultan Selim I. The Ottoman sultans then claimed the title and used the title caliph until the caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Republic on March 3, 1924.
After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty at Damascus in 750, the title of caliph was also assumed the Andalusian branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordoba (755-1031 CC). The title "caliph" was also assumed by the Fatimid rulers of Egypt (909-1171 CC), who claimed to descend from Fatimah (a daughter of Muhammad) and Fatimah's husband, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.
According to the Shi'a, who call the supreme Islamic office the "imamate" or leadership, no one can claim to be legimate unless he is a lineal descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. Later, Sunni scholars insisted that the office belonged to the tribe of Quraysh, to which Muhammad himself belonged, but this condition would have vitiated the claim of the Ottoman sultans, who held the office after the last 'Abbasid caliph of Cairo transferred the title to Selim I.
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Related Wikipedia Listing:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caliphs
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Appendix 2
Imam
Imam (plural - a'immah) is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, lead prayers, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. Thus, for Sunnis, anyone can study the basic Islamic sciences and become an Imam.
For most Shi'a Muslims, the Imams are absolute infallible leaders of the Islamic community after the Prophet. Shias consider the term to be only applicable to the members and descendents of the Ahl al-Bayt - the family of the Prophet Muhammad. In Twelver Shi'ism, there are 14 infalliables, 12 of which are Imams, the final being Imam Mahdi, the four year old Imam who will return at the end of times.
The title Imam was also used by the Zaidi Shi'a Imams of Yemen, who eventually founded the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1918–1970).
‘Ali (d. 661)
* Saba ‘iyya (who claim that ‘Ali is God, and that he went into occultation)
Hassan (d. 669)
* Kaysaniyya
* Karibiyya
* Hashimiyya
* Abbasiyya
* Rizaniyya/Muslimiyya
* Mukhtariyya
* Bayaniyya
Husayn (d. 680)
Ali Zayn al-Abidin (d. 712 or 713)
* Zaydiyya (Zayd claimed to be the fifth imam)
* Jarudiyya
* Sulaymaniyya/Jaririyya
* Butriyya/Salihiyya
Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 743)
* Janahiyya (God incarnated in the prophets/imams)
* Mughiriyya (anthropomorph God)
* Munsiriyya (symbolic understanding of the Qur’an. First, God created Jesus, then ‘Ali)
* Khattabiyya (Abdul Khattab claimed to be the imam, and hence the Prophet)
* Bazighiyya
* Mu’ammariyya
* Umayriyya
* Mufaddaliyya
* Ghurabiyya (‘Ali is above the Prophet)
* Baqiriyya
Jafar as-Sadiq (d. 765)
* Jafariyya (“Jafar is not dead!”)
* Aftahiyya
* Shumaytiyya
* Isma‘iliyya
* Mubarakiyya
* Fatimid Isma‘iliyya
* Mustalia
* Nizari
* Druze
Musa al-Kazim (d. 799)
* Musawiyya (“Imam Musa is not dead!”)
* Bajaliyya
* Bashariyya (Only perform sawm and salat)
Ali ar-Rida (d. 818)
* Ahmadiyya
* Mualifa
* Muhadditha
Muhammad at-Taqi (d. 835)
Ali al-Hadi (d. 868)
* Alawiyya
* Muhammadiyya
* Jafariyya
Hassan al-Askari (d. 873)
Muhammad al-Mahdi (occultation 941)
Ta’ifa. Arabic word which means “group” or“faction.” The plural of the word ta’ifa is tawa’if. Following the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in Cordoba, Muslim Spain split into rival factions (tawa’if). The tawa’if founded independent principalities. The princes of the tawa’if are called the kings of the ta’ifa -- the muluk al-tawa’if.
The Ta'ifa is a faction or party, as applied to the followers of any of the petty kings who appeared in Muslim Spain in a period of great political fragmentation early in the 11th century after the dissolution of the central authority of the Umayyad caliphate of Córdoba. After the dictatorship of al-Muẓaffar (r. 1002–08), civil war reduced the caliphate to a puppet institution and allowed the various taifas to establish themselves in independent and short-lived kingdoms throughout the Iberian peninsula. There were at least 23 such states between 1009 and their final conquest by the Almoravids of North Africa in 1091. Thus, the Berbers counted in their party the Afṭasids of Badajoz, the Dhū al-Nūnids of Toledo, and the Ḥammūdids of Málaga, who briefly helped the Córdoban caliphate. The Andalusians, or Hispano-Arabs, were represented by the ʿAbbādids of Sevilla (Seville), the Jahwarids of Córdoba, and the Hūdids of Zaragoza. The Ṣaqālibah (Slav mercenaries) did not form dynasties but created such kingdoms as Tortosa, Denia, and Valencia.
Wars between the various states never ceased. The states had few scruples in asking for Christian support against rival Muslim kings or in turning to the North African kingdoms for aid against Christian princes. Such lack of unity and consistency made the kingdoms of the taifas fair targets for the growing forces of Christian reconquest. Soon Badajoz, Toledo, Zaragoza, and even Sevilla were paying tribute to the Christian Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile.
Despite their political incompetence, however, the taifa kings fostered a period of brilliant Islamic cultural revival. In the manner of the caliphal courts, they entertained poets; promoted the study of philosophy, natural science, and mathematics; and produced such noted figures as the poet-king al-Muʿtamid of Sevilla and his vizier Ibn ʿAmmār, the poets Ibn Zaydūn and Wallādah of Córdoba, and Ibn Ḥazm, the poet-philosopher-scholar.
In 1085 Alfonso took Toledo. At the invitation of several party kings, the Almoravid Yūsuf ibn Tāshufīn entered Spain and defeated Alfonso at the Battle of Zallāqah, near Badajoz, in 1086. When Muslim fortunes in Spain did not improve, Yūsuf returned in 1088. He dissolved the party kingdoms (1090–91) and extended the Almoravid empire into Spain.
Group see Ta’ifa.
Faction see Ta’ifa.
Taqali (Tegali). The people of Taqali live in the northeastern Nuba hills of Kordofan Province, Republic of the Sudan. Taqali denotes a place rather than a group of people. In the local language, a person from Taqali would be an Aqali or Ugali. However, many people have forgotten that language, and they refer to themselves in Arabic as nas or ahl (“people,” “folk,” “family”) Taqali or Taqalawin. They have a strong sense of common identity while yet recognizing that their ancestors came from many different ethnic groups.
Although Muslims, the Taqali do not consider themselves Arabs. That ethnic label, in fact, bears the negative connotation of the nineteenth century Arab raiders who kidnapped highlanders and sold them into slavery. Men, however, and most women speak Arabic as well as the local tongue, one of the Taqali-Taqoi cluster of dialects. The model of people using Arabic in the market and their own language at home holds true only to a limited extent. The actual mix of language and social contextis much less clear cut and sometimes seems coincidental or arbitrary.
The Taqali kingdom’s historic center and the ruins of royal compounds all lie in the hills. In 1929, however, the Taqali king, his family and his entourage descended from the hills for better access to roads and markets. They built the town of Abbasiya and the small villages which surround it. Plains villagers and Abbasiya townsmen constantly exchange visits and form a single community.
Members of Taqali’s royal family assumed local political offices under Anglo-Egyptian administration (1898-1956) and had considerable independence until the revolution of 1969. Even after they were removed from formal office, however, local people and guests came to them for advice, mediation and hospitality. The king’s descendants continue to wield considerable local power and influence, forming Abbasiya’s political elite.
Taqali (also spelled Tegali) was a state in the Nuba Hills, in modern day central Sudan. Unlike the surrounding Kordofan the uplands of the hills were quite moist and suitable to agriculture and a dense population. The state was centered upon the Taqali Massif the highest part of the hills in the northeast of the region. Its early history is unclear. Oral traditions state it was founded many centuries ago at the same time that the Kingdom of Sennar came into being. Some scholars doubt these tales and believe that the state did not come into being until the late eighteenth century (between 1750 and 1780), and that the early rulers on the king list are semi-mythological.
It has been argued that the first true ruler of Taqali was Muhammad wad Jayli and that he and his son Ismail forged the state. Some believe it formed during the period of disorder in the Kordofan when the Kingdom of Sennar was declining and Darfur was growing in power. Muhammad began the process of uniting the region. He was succeeded as Makk (also Makuk) by his brother Umar. Umar was overthrown, however, by Ajaid, the queen mother, and Ismail around 1783. Ismail took over and further expanded the state, taking control of the "99 hills" of the region. His son Abakr peacefully succeeded him, but after this the state was beset by conflicts over the succession through much of the period from 1840 to 1880.
Despite its small size the Taqali state remained independent of its more powerful neighbors. While the Nuba Hills were well suited to agriculture they were surrounded by the arid Kordofan. This region was far too dry to support a large army and only small expeditions could be launched. The rocky terrain of the Taqali Massif served as natural fortifications. The Kingdom of Sennar exerted enough pressure that Taqali sent annual tribute, but never conquered the area. When Sennar was destroyed by the Egyptian invasion of 1821 the situation continued. The Egyptians launched three separate attacks against Taqali, but all of them failed. Eventually an agreement was reached whereby Taqali would remain de facto independent but would pay a nominal tribute and be officially included within the Egyptian Sudan.
The state was finally conquered by the forces of the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad. Makk Adam prevaricated between the British and the forces of the Mahdi, professing his support for both but aiding neither. In 1883 the Mahdi decided that Taqali had to be conquered. His armies did more than previous ones. In July 1884 Makk (also said Makuk) Adam was captured, and he eventually died in captivity. Insurrections continued in Taqali and Hamdan Abu Anja was dispatched to defeat the resistance. This was done though with much pillaging and destruction of the region.
With the defeat of the Mahdists the Mukuk of Taqali were restored to power, but they were now closely controlled by the British. Taqali proved a useful ally and the British gradually gave it more territory to control and administer. This continued with the independence of Sudan in 1956. The administrative power of the state was finally done away with after the 1969 coup. The Makk (or Makuk) of Taqali, though having no political power, remains a ceremonial leader to the people of the region to this day.
The Mukuk of Taqali include:
* Muhammad al-Rubatabi
* Jayli Abu Jarida
* Sabo
* Jayli Umara
* Jayli Awan Allah
* Jayli Abu Qurun
* Muhammad wad Jayli c. 1750
* Umar I to 1783
* Ismail 1783 to 1800
* Abakr I 1800 to 1820
* Umar II 1800 to 1835
* Ahmad 1835 to 1840
* Maryud 1840 to 1843
* Nasir 1843 to c. 1860
* Adam I c. 1860 to 1884
* Interregnum 1884 to 1898
* Jayli 1898 to 1916
* Abakr II 1916 to 1920
* Adam II 1920 to ?
tariqa (tariqah). Arabic term which means “the path” or “the way.” The term tariqa refers to a religious brotherhood of Sufis. The term also applies to the system of beliefs and training transmitted by particular schools of Sufism. The term turuq is the plural of tariqa.
The term tariqa is a widely used technical term referring to true Islam, to the Sufi tradition, and to individual Sufi brotherhoods. In the first sense, tariqa is equivalent to the phrase “the straight path” in the opening chapter -- the Surat al-Fatiha --of the Qur’an. Just as unbelief (kufr) and polytheism (shirk) characterize infidels, i.e., deviants from the straight path, so faith in God and total reliance on his will characterize the traveler on the straight path, i.e., the true Muslim. In handbooks of Sufi theorists, increasingly popular from the eleventh century of the Christian calendar onward, tariqa acquired a second, more specific denotation of an intermediate stage leading from observance of the law (sharia) to realization of the truth. Much of the controversy surrounding Sufism concerns the relationship of the path to the law. Itinerant, antinomian Muslims, such as the qalandar, dispersed with the law while the strict ‘ulama’ (the learned functionaries of Islam) denied the validity of the way. Moderate Sufis try to adhere to the requirements of both.
Many medieval theorists stressed the complementarity of the outer (the law) and the inner (the truth), assuming the path as an implicit link between them. The fourteenth century master Sharaf-al-Maneri wrote, “The Law is like the body, Truth like the soul. Just as a man cannot live without either body or soul, so he cannot believe unless he adheres to both the Law and the Truth.” Others have grafted truth to law by extending the mystic path inot a multidirectional quest. The journey to God is followed by a journey into God, which, however, then leads to a journey from God back to the phenomenal world. The paradigm for this spiritual ascent and descent is to the mi’raj or ascension of the Prophet Muhammad, whom Sufis extol not only as the founder of Islam but also as the model Sufi.
By the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the way became channeled into organized brotherhoods, each with hierarchical lines of authority emanating from a single, all-powerful shaikh. These brotherhoods or tariqas (also silsilas) exhibited enormous variety. Some were pan-Islamic in scope and activity; others were solely regional. Some were politically influential; others were distrustful of any governmental connection. Collectively, the brotherhoods helped to extend the perimeters of the Muslim world. Without them Sufism would have been limited to literary artifacts and ecstatic personalities of the early medieval period.
Tariqa (“road,” “path,” or “way”) refers to the Muslim spiritual path toward direct knowledge (maʿrifah) of God or Reality (ḥaqq). In the 9th and 10th centuries tariqa meant the spiritual path of individual Sufis (mystics). After the 12th century, as communities of followers gathered around sheikhs (or pīrs,“teachers”), tariqa came to designate the sheikh’s entire ritual system, which was followed by the community or mystic order. Eventually tariqa came to mean the order itself.
Each mystic order claimed a chain of spiritual descent (silsilah) from the Prophet Muhammad, established procedures for initiation of members (murid, ikhwan, darwīsh, fakir), and prescribed disciplines. By following the path of a known“friend of God,” or Sufi saint, under the guidance of his sheikh, the Sufi might himself achieve the mystical state (hāl) of the friends of God. Though sober teachers inveighed against excesses, the search for spiritual ecstasy sometimes led to such practices as drug taking and wild acrobatics, activities that earned for some of the orders the names whirling, howling, and dancing dervishes. Dervish orders frequently established monasteries (ribat, khankah, zāwiyah, tekke) in which laity as well as members were invited to stay.
First established in the 12th century, the orders numbered in the hundreds by the mid-20th century, with a membership in the millions. The greatest expansion of Sufi tariqas has been in the central Islamic countries, where they played a vital role in the religious life of the Muslim community. Orders also exist in West Africa, eastern Europe, India, and in Central and Far Eastern Asia.
The traditional orders are:
* Abbasiyya
* Ahmadiya - Sheikh Muhammad Borhanuddin Uyesi
* Arusiyyah-Qadiriyyah
* Ashrafi
* Azeemia
* Ba'Alawi
* Badawiyyah
* Bektashi
* Chishti
* Darqawa
* Dar ul Ehsan
* Fazli Qadri
* Galibi
* Habibi Silsila
* Halveti
* Hurufi
* Idrisiyya
* Ismaili
* Jerrahi
* Mohammadiyaa
* Mevlevi
* Kibruyeh
* Naqshbandi
* Nasiriyya
* Nematollahi
* Noorbakshi
* Oveyssi
* Qadiri
* Qadiri 'Arusi
* Qadiri Al-Muntahi
* Qadiri Boutchichi
* Qalandari
* Qarnaiyniyah
* Qadri-Qadeeri Silsila
* Rifa'i
* Safaviyeh
* Sanusiyya
* Sarwari Qadiri
* Sarwariyya
* Shadhili
* Shattari
* Sirajiyah Haqqaniya
* Suhrawardiyya
* Tijani
* Zahediyeh
tariqah see tariqa
Jahanara Begum (r.1631-1658) Daughter of Shah Jahan
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