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The 100 Greatest Muslims
Everett Jenkins' 2022 Version
1. The Prophet Muhammad
2. Umar ibn al-Khattab
3. Ali ibn Abi Talib
4. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
5. Uthman ibn Affan
6. Aisha bint Abu Bakr
7. Khadija bint Khuwaylid
8. Khalid ibn al-Walid
9. Husayn ibn Ali
10. Abu Hurayra
11. Fatimah bint Muhammad
12. Bilal ibn Rabah
13. Al-Bukhari
14. Abu Hanifah
15. Al-Ash'ari
16. Saladin
17. Al-Ghazali - "The Proof of Islam" -- Eleventh century Persian polymath who was one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists and mystics of Islam
Al-Ghazali (UK: /ælˈɡɑːzɑːli/,[24] US: /ˌælɡəˈzɑːli, -zæl-/;[25][26] full name أَبُو حَامِدٍ مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ مُحَمَّدٍ ٱلطُّوسِيُّ ٱلْغَزَالِيُّ or ٱلْغَزَّالِيُّ, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad aṭ-Ṭūsiyy al-Ġaz(z)ālīy; Latinized Algazelus or Algazel; c. 1058 – 19 December 1111), known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی), was a Persian[27][28][29][30] polymath, who was one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, logicians and mystics[31][32] of Islam.[33]
Some Muslims consider[34] him to be a Mujaddid, a renewer of the faith who, according to the prophetic hadith, appears once every century to restore the faith of the ummah ("the Islamic Community").[35][36][37] His works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that al-Ghazali was awarded the honorific title "Proof of Islam" (Hujjat al-Islām).[1]
Al-Ghazali believed that the Islamic spiritual tradition had become moribund and that the spiritual sciences taught by the first generation of Muslims had been forgotten.[38] This belief led him to write his magnum opus entitled Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences").[39] Among his other works, the Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") is a significant landmark in the history of philosophy, as it advances the critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th-century Europe.[33]
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Iḥyā′ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn (transl. The Revival of the Religious Knowledge; Arabic: إحياء علوم الدين) is an 11th-century book written by Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazali.[1][2][3] The book was composed in Arabic and was based on personal religious experience. It is regarded as one of his chief works and a classic introduction to the pious muslim's way to God.[4] Originally spanning over 40 volumes, it deals with the principles and practices of Islam and demonstrates how these can be made the basis of a reflective religious life, thereby attaining the higher stages of Sufism. Some consider Kimiyā-ye Sa'ādat as a rewrite of this work, which is a common misconception. Kimyā-ye Sa'ādat is shorter than this book, however Ghazali said that he wrote the former to reflect the nature of the latter and a few of his other theological writings.[5]
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The Incoherence of the Philosophers (تهافت الفلاسفة Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ in Arabic) is the title of a landmark 11th-century work by the Persian theologian Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazali and a student of the Asharite school of Islamic theology criticizing the Avicennian school of early Islamic philosophy.[1] Muslim philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi (Alpharabius) are denounced in this book, as they follow Greek philosophy even when it contradicts Islam. The text was dramatically successful, and marked a milestone in the ascendance of the Asharite school within Islamic philosophy and theological discourse.
The book favors faith over philosophy in matters specifically concerning metaphysics or knowledge of the divine.
18. Al-Shafi'i - "Shaykh al-Islam" -- Eighth century Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and scholar whose legacy is the Shafi'i school of fiqh
Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (Arabic: أَبُو عَبْدِ ٱللهِ مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ إِدْرِيسَ ٱلشَّافِعِيُّ, 767–820 CE) was an Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and scholar, who was the first contributor of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (Uṣūl al-fiqh). Often referred to as 'Shaykh al-Islām', al-Shāfi‘ī was one of the four great Sunni Imams, whose legacy on juridical matters and teaching eventually led to the formation of Shafi'i school of fiqh (or Madh'hab). He was the most prominent student of Imam Malik ibn Anas, and he also served as the Governor of Najar.[8] Born in Gaza in Palestine (Jund Filastin), he also lived in Mecca and Medina in the Hejaz, Yemen, Egypt, and Baghdad in Iraq.
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Shaykh al-Islām (Arabic: شيخ الإسلام, romanized: Šayḫ al-Islām; Persian: شِیخُالاسلام Sheykh-ol-Eslām; Ottoman Turkish: شیخ الاسلام, romanized: Şhaykḫu-l-İslām or Sheiklı ul-Islam[1]) was used in the classical era as an honorific title for outstanding scholars of the Islamic sciences.[2]: 399 [3] It first emerged in Khurasan towards the end of the 4th Islamic century.[2]: 399 In the central and western lands of Islam, it was an informal title given to jurists whose fatwas were particularly influential, while in the east it came to be conferred by rulers to ulama who played various official roles but were not generally muftis. Sometimes, as in the case of Ibn Taymiyyah, the use of the title was subject to controversy. In the Ottoman Empire, starting from the early modern era, the title came to designate the chief mufti, who oversaw a hierarchy of state-appointed ulama. The Ottoman Sheikh al-Islam (French spelling: cheikh-ul-islam[note 1]) performed a number of functions, including advising the sultan on religious matters, legitimizing government policies, and appointing judges.[2]: 400 [5]
With the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924, the official Ottoman office of Shaykh al-Islām, already in decline, was eliminated.[6] Modern times have seen the role of chief mufti carried out by grand muftis appointed or elected in a variety of ways.[3]
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Fiqh (/fiːk/;[1] Arabic: فقه [fɪqh]) is Islamic jurisprudence.[2] Fiqh is often described as the human understanding and practices of the sharia,[3] that is human understanding of the divine Islamic law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnah (the teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions). Fiqh expands and develops Shariah through interpretation (ijtihad) of the Quran and Sunnah by Islamic jurists (ulama)[3] and is implemented by the rulings (fatwa) of jurists on questions presented to them. Thus, whereas sharia is considered immutable and infallible by Muslims, fiqh is considered fallible and changeable. Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation in Islam as well as political system. In the modern era, there are four prominent schools (madh'hab) of fiqh within Sunni practice, plus two (or three) within Shi'a practice. A person trained in fiqh is known as a faqīh (plural fuqaha).[4]
Figuratively, fiqh means knowledge about Islamic legal rulings from their sources. Deriving religious rulings from their sources requires the mujtahid (an individual who exercises ijtihad) to have a deep understanding in the different discussions of jurisprudence. A faqīh must look deep down into a matter and not content himself with just the apparent meaning, and a person who only knows the appearance of a matter is not qualified as a faqīh.[2]
The studies of fiqh, are traditionally divided into Uṣūl al-fiqh (principles of Islamic jurisprudence, lit. the roots of fiqh, alternatively transliterated as Usool al-fiqh), the methods of legal interpretation and analysis; and Furūʿ al-fiqh (lit. the branches of fiqh), the elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles.[5][6] Furūʿ al-fiqh is the product of the application of Uṣūl al-fiqh and the total product of human efforts at understanding the divine will. A hukm (plural aḥkām) is a particular ruling in a given case.
19. Al-Khwarazmi - Ninth century Persian polymath who produced vastly influential works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography; author of The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing. Most renowned as the "father of algebra", Al-Khwarizmi had such huge influence on the field of mathematics that it is attributed to him the eponymous word 'algorithm' as well as 'algebra'.
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī[note 1] (Persian: محمد بن موسی خوارزمی, romanized: Moḥammad ben Musā Khwārazmi; c. 780 – c. 850), or al-Khwarizmi and formerly Latinized as Algoritimi as in Algoritmi de numero Indorum ("Al-Khwārizmī Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning"),[6] was a Persian polymath from Khwarazm,[7][8][9][10] who produced vastly influential works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography. Around 820 CE he was appointed as the astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.[11]: 14
Al-Khwarizmi's popularizing treatise on algebra (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, c. 813–833 CE[12]: 171 ) presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. One of his principal achievements in algebra was his demonstration of how to solve quadratic equations by completing the square, for which he provided geometric justifications.[11]: 14 Because he was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline and introduced the methods of "reduction" and "balancing" (the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation),[13] he has been described as the father[7][14][15] or founder[16][17] of algebra. The term algebra itself comes from the title of his book (the word al-jabr meaning "completion" or "rejoining").[18] His name gave rise to the terms algorism and algorithm,[19][6] as well as Spanish, Italian and Portuguese terms algoritmo, and Spanish guarismo[20] and Portuguese algarismo meaning "digit".
In the 12th century, Latin translations of his textbook on arithmetic (Algorithmo de Numero Indorum) which codified the various Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world.[21] The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, translated into Latin by Robert of Chester in 1145, was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text-book of European universities.[22][23][24][25]
In addition to his best-known works, he revised Ptolemy's Geography, listing the longitudes and latitudes of various cities and localities.[26]: 9 He further produced a set of astronomical tables and wrote about calendaric works, as well as the astrolabe and the sundial.[27] He also made important contributions to trigonometry, producing accurate sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents.
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The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing (Arabic: ٱلْكِتَاب ٱلْمُخْتَصَر فِي حِسَاب ٱلْجَبْر وَٱلْمُقَابَلَة, al-Kitāb al-Mukhtaṣar fī Ḥisāb al-Jabr wal-Muqābalah;[b] Latin: Liber Algebræ et Almucabola), also known as Al-Jabr (ٱلْجَبْر), is an Arabic mathematical treatise on algebra written by the Polymath Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī around 820 CE while he was in the Abbasid capital of Baghdad, modern-day Iraq. Al-Jabr was a landmark work in the history of mathematics, establishing algebra as an independent discipline, and with the term "algebra" itself derived from Al-Jabr.
The Compendious Book provided an exhaustive account of solving for the positive roots of polynomial equations up to the second degree.[1]: 228 [c] It was the first text to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake.[d] It also introduced the fundamental concept of "reduction" and "balancing" (which the term al-jabr originally referred to), the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, i.e. the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.[e] Mathematics historian Victor J. Katz regards Al-Jabr as the first true algebra text that is still extant.[f] Translated into Latin by Robert of Chester in 1145, it was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical textbook of European universities.[4][g][6][7]
20. Ahmad ibn Hanbal - Ninth century Arab Muslim jurist, theologian, ascetic, hadith traditionist and founder of the Hanbali school of Sunni jurisprudence
Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (أَحْمَد ابْن حَنۢبَل), or Ibn Ḥanbal (ابْن حَنۢبَل)[6] (November 780 – 2 August 855 CE/164–241 AH), was an Arab Muslim jurist, theologian, ascetic, hadith traditionist, and founder of the Hanbali school of Sunni jurisprudence — one of the four major orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam.[7]
A highly influential and active scholar during his lifetime,[7] Ibn Hanbal went on to become "one of the most venerated" intellectual figures in Islamic history,[8] who has had a "profound influence affecting almost every area of" the traditionalist perspective within Sunni Islam.[9] One of the foremost classical proponents of relying on scriptural sources as the basis for Sunni Islamic law and way of life, Ibn Hanbal compiled one of the most important Sunni hadith collections, the Musnad,[10] which has continued to exercise considerable influence in the field of hadith studies up to the present time.[7]
Having studied fiqh and hadith under many teachers during his youth,[11] Ibn Hanbal became famous in his later life for the crucial role he played in the Mihna, the inquisition instituted by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun towards the end of his reign, in which the ruler gave official state support to the Muʿtazilite dogma of the Quran being created, a view that contradicted the orthodox doctrine of the Quran being the eternal, uncreated Word of God.[7] Suffering physical persecution under the caliph for his unflinching adherence to the traditional doctrine, Ibn Hanbal's fortitude in this particular event only bolstered his "resounding reputation"[7] in the annals of Sunni history.
Throughout Sunni Islamic history, Ibn Hanbal was venerated as an exemplary figure in all the traditional schools of Sunni thought,[7] both by the exoteric ulema and by the mystics, with the latter often designating him as a saint in their hagiographies.[12] The fourteenth-century hadith master al-Dhahabi referred to Ibn Hanbal as "the true Shaykh of Islām and leader of the Muslims in his time, the ḥadīth master and Proof of the Religion."[13]
In the modern era, Ibn Hanbal's name has become controversial in certain quarters of the Islamic world, because the Hanbali reform movement known as Wahhabism has cited him as a principal influence along with the thirteenth-century Hanbali reformer Ibn Taymiyyah. However it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism,"[14] as there is evidence, according to the same authors, that "the older Hanbalite authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of the Wahhabis,"[14] rich as medieval Hanbali literature is in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics.[15] In this connection, scholars have cited Ibn Hanbal's own support for the use of relics as simply one of several important points upon which the theologian's opinions diverged from those of Wahhabism.[16] Other scholars maintain that Ahmād Ibn Hānbal was "the distant progenitor of Wahhābism" who also immensely inspired the conservative reform movement of Salafiyya.[17]
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Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Arabic: مسند أحمد بن حنبل) is a collection of hadith compiled by the Islamic scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241 AH/855 AD) to whom the Hanbali fiqh (legislation) is attributed.[1]
It is one of the largest hadith book written in Islamic History containing more than twenty-seven thousand hadiths according to Maktaba Shamila.[2] It is organized into compilations of the hadiths narrated by each Companion, starting with "the ten who were promised Paradise". This highlights their status and the efforts they made to preserve the ahadeeth of the Messenger of Allah.[3]
It is said by some that Ahmad ibn Hanbal made a comment in regard to his book which reads as follows: "I have only included a hadith in this book if it had been used as evidence by some of the scholars." Abu al-Faraj Ibn al-Jawzi ironically claimed that the Musnad contains hadiths that are fabricated by interpolation (i.e. the narrator jumbling up information, mixing texts and authoritative chains), which were said to be nine Hadiths by some, or fifteen hadiths by others. However, it is agreed that the hadith that are suspected to be fabricated are not new hadiths that are creations of a dubious narrator's imagination.[4]
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The Hanbali school (Arabic: ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, romanized: al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (madhahib) of Islamic jurisprudence.[1] It is named after the Iraqi scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), and was institutionalized by his students. The Hanbali madhhab is the smallest of four major Sunni schools, the others being the Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi`i.[2][3]
The Hanbali school derives sharia primarily from the Qur'an, the Hadiths (sayings and customs of Muhammad), and the views of Sahabah (Muhammad's companions).[1] In cases where there is no clear answer in sacred texts of Islam, the Hanbali school does not accept istihsan (jurist discretion) or 'urf (customs of a community) as a sound basis to derive Islamic law, a method that Hanafi and Maliki Sunni madh'habs accept. Hanbali school is the strict traditionalist school of jurisprudence in Sunni Islam.[4] It is found primarily in the countries of Saudi Arabia and Qatar, where it is the official Fiqh.[5][6] Hanbali followers are the demographic majority in four emirates of UAE (Sharjah, Umm al-Quwain, Ras al-Khaimah and Ajman).[7] Large minorities of Hanbali followers are also found in Bahrain, Syria, Oman and Yemen and among Iraqi and Jordanian bedouins.[5][8]
The Hanbali school experienced a reformation during the 18th-century Wahhabi movement.[9] Historically the school was small; during the 18th to early-20th century Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Al Saud greatly aided its propagation around the world by way of their interpretation of the school's teachings.[9] As a result of this, the school's name has become a controversial one in certain quarters of the Islamic world due to the influence he is believed by some to have had upon these teachings, which cites Ahmad Ibn Hanbal as a principal influence along with the thirteenth-century Hanbali reformer Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyah. However, it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism,"[10] as there is evidence, according to the same authors, that "the older Hanbalite authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of the Wahhabis,"[10] as medieval Hanbali literature is rich in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics.[11] Historically, the Hanbali school was treated as simply another valid interpretation of Shariat (Islamic law), and many prominent medieval Sufis, such as Abdul Qadir Gilani, were Hanbali jurists and mystics at the same time.[11]
21. Ibn Khaldun - Fourteenth century Muslim Arab sociologist, philosopher, and historian who is deemed to be the "father of sociology," the"father of historiography" and the "father of modern economics." He is best known for his Muqaddimah.
Ibn Khaldun (/ˈɪbən xælˈduːn/; Arabic: أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي, Abū Zayd ‘Abd ar-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Khaldūn al-Ḥaḍramī; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406) was a Muslim Arab[10] sociologist, philosopher and historian[11][12] who has been described as the precursive founder of the proto-disciplines[13][14] that would become historiography, sociology, economics, and demography.[note 1][15][note 2] Niccolò Machiavelli of the Renaissance, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and 19th-century European scholars widely acknowledged the significance of his works and considered Ibn Khaldun to be one of the greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages.[16]
His best-known book, the Muqaddimah or Prolegomena ("Introduction"), which he wrote in six months as he states in his autobiography,[17] influenced 17th-century and 19th-century Ottoman historians such as Kâtip Çelebi, Mustafa Naima and Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, who used its theories to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire.[18] Ibn Khaldun interacted with Tamerlane, the founder of the Timurid Empire.
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The Muqaddimah, also known as the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun (Arabic: مقدّمة ابن خلدون) or Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomena (Ancient Greek: Προλεγόμενα), is a book written by the Arab historian Ibn Khaldun in 1377 which records an early view of universal history. Some modern thinkers view it as the first work dealing with the social sciences of sociology,[1][2][3] demography,[2] and cultural history.[4] The Muqaddimah also deals with Islamic theology, historiography,[5] the philosophy of history,[1] economics,[6][7] political theory, and ecology.[8][9] It has also been described as a precursor or an early representative of social Darwinism,[10] and Darwinism.[clarification needed][11]
Ibn Khaldun wrote the work in 1377 as the introduction chapter and the first book of his planned work of world history, the Kitābu l-ʻibar ("Book of Lessons"; full title: Kitābu l-ʻibari wa Dīwāni l-Mubtada' wal-Ḥabar fī ayāmi l-ʻarab wal-ʿajam wal-barbar, waman ʻĀsarahum min Dhawī sh-Shalṭāni l-Akbār, i.e.: "Book of Lessons, Record of Beginnings and Events in the history of the Arabs and Foreigners and Berbers and their Powerful Contemporaries"), but already in his lifetime it became regarded as an independent work on its own.
- Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, "father of modern surgery"[1] and the "father of operative surgery".[2]
- Ibn Taymiyyah One of The Greatest Islamic Scholar.
- Ibn Al-Nafis, "father of circulatory physiology and anatomy.[3][4][5]
- Abbas Ibn Firnas, father of medieval aviation.[6][7]
- Alhazen, "father of modern optics".[8][9]
- Jabir ibn Hayyan, father of chemistry
- Ibn Khaldun father of sociology, historiography and modern economics. He is best known for his Muqaddimah.
- Ibn Sina, widely regarded as the father of early modern medicine as well as the father of Clinical Pharmacology.[10] His most famous work is the Canon of Medicine.[11]
- 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi, also known as Haly Abbas: founder of anatomic physiology".[12] In addition, the section on dermatology in his Kamil as-sina'ah at-tibbiyah (Royal book-Liber Regius) has one scholar to regard him as the "father of Arabic dermatology".[13]
- Al-Biruni: the "founder of Indology", "father of comparative religion" and geodesy, and "first anthropologist" titles for his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.[14] Georg Morgenstierne regarded him as "the founder of comparative studies in human culture".[15] Al-Biruni is also known as the "father of Islamic pharmacy".[16][17]
- Al-Khwarizmi: most renowned as the "father of algebra"[18][19]Al-Khwarizmi had such huge influence on the field of mathematics that it is attributed to him the eponymous word 'algorithm' as well as 'algebra'.[20][21]
- Ibn Hazm: father of comparative religion and "honoured in the West as that of the founder of the science of comparative religion".[22] Alfred Guillaume refers to him the composer of "the first systematic higher critical study of the Old and New testaments".[23] However, William Montgomery Watt disputes the claim, stating that Ibn Hazm's work was preceded by earlier works in Arabic and that "the aim was polemical and not descriptive".[24]
- Al-Farabi: regarded as the "founder of Islamic/Arab Neoplatonism"[25][26] and by some as the "father of formal logic in the Islamic world".[27][28]
- Muhammad al-Idrisi: father of world map[29]
- Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198): known in west as The Commentator, "father of free thought and unbelief"[30][31] and has been described by some as the "father of rationalism"[32] and the "founding father of secular thought in Western Europe".[33][34] Ernest Renan called Averroes the absolute rationalist, and regarded him as the father of freethought and dissent.[35]
- Rhazes: His treatise on Diseases in Children has led many to consider him the "father of pediatrics".[36][37][38] He has also been praised as the "real founder of clinical medicine in Islam".[39]
- Muhammad al-Shaybani: the father of Muslim international law.[40]
- Ismail al-Jazari: Father of Automaton and Robotics.[40]
- Suhrawardi: founder of the Illuminationist school of Islamic philosophy.[41][42]
- Al-Tusi, "father of trigonometry" as a mathematical discipline in its own right.[43][44][45]
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr: the 'founding father' of Islamic ecotheology.[46][47]
22. Malik ibn Anas - The "Imam of Medina" -- Eighth century Arab Muslim jurist, theologian and hadith traditionist; author of the Muwatta; founder of the Maliki school of Sunni law
Malik ibn Anas (Arabic: مَالِك بن أَنَس, 711–795 CE / 93–179 AH), whose full name is Mālik bin Anas bin Mālik bin Abī ʿĀmir bin ʿAmr bin Al-Ḥārith bin Ghaymān bin Khuthayn bin ʿAmr bin Al-Ḥārith al-Aṣbaḥī al-Madanī (مَالِك بِن أَنَس بِن مَالِك بن أَبِي عَامِر بِن عَمْرو بِن ٱلْحَارِث بِن غَيْمَان بِن خُثَين بِن عَمْرو بِن ٱلْحَارِث ٱلْأَصْبَحِي ٱلْحُمَيْرِي ٱلْمَدَنِي), reverently known as al-Imām Mālik (ٱلْإِمَام مَالِك) by Sunni Muslims, was an Arab Muslim jurist, theologian, and hadith traditionist.[3] Born in the city of Medina, Malik rose to become the premier scholar of prophetic traditions in his day,[3] which he sought to apply to "the whole legal life" in order to create a systematic method of Muslim jurisprudence which would only further expand with the passage of time.[3] Referred to as the "Imam of Medina" by his contemporaries, Malik's views in matters of jurisprudence were highly cherished both in his own life and afterwards, and he became the founder of one of the four schools of Sunni law, the Maliki,[3] which became the normative rite for the Sunni practice of much of North Africa, Al-Andalus (until expulsion of Muslims), a vast portion of Egypt, and some parts of Syria, Yemen, Sudan, Iraq, and Khorasan,[4] and the prominent Sufi orders, including the Shadiliyya and the Tijaniyyah.[5]
Perhaps Malik's most famous accomplishment in the annals of Islamic history is, however, his compilation of the Muwatta, one of the oldest and most revered Sunni hadith collections and one of "the earliest surviving Muslim law-book[s],"[3] in which Malik attempted to "give a survey of law and justice; ritual and practice of religion according to the consensus of Islam in Medina, according to the sunna usual in Medina; and to create a theoretical standard for matters which were not settled from the point of view of consensus and sunna."[3] Composed in the early days of the Abbasid caliphate, during which time there was a burgeoning "recognition and appreciation of the canon law" of the ruling party, Malik's work aimed to trace out a "smoothed path" (which is what al-muwaṭṭaʾ literally means) through "the farreaching differences of opinion even on the most elementary questions."[3] Hailed as "the soundest book on earth after the Quran" by al-Shafi'i,[4] the compilation of the Muwatta led to Malik being bestowed with such reverential epithets as "Shaykh of Islam", "Proof of the Community", "Imam of the Abode of Emigration", and "Knowledgeable Scholar of Medina" in later Sunni tradition.[4]
According to classical Sunni tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad foretold the birth of Malik, saying: "Very soon will people beat the flanks of camels in search of knowledge and they shall find no one more expert than the knowledgeable scholar of Medina,"[6] and, in another tradition, "The people ... shall set forth from East and West without finding a sage other than the sage of the people in Medina."[7] While some later scholars, such as Ibn Hazm and Tahawi, did cast doubt on identifying the mysterious wise man of both these traditions with Malik,[8] the most widespread interpretation nevertheless continued to be that which held the personage to be Malik.[8] Throughout Islamic history, Malik has been venerated as an exemplary figure in all the traditional schools of Sunni thought, both by the exoteric ulema and by the mystics, with the latter often designating him as a saint in their hagiographies.[9][10] Malik's most notable student, Al-Shafi'i (who would himself become the founder of another of the four orthodox legal schools of Sunni law) later said of his teacher: "No one constitutes as great a favor to me in the Religion of God as Malik ... when the scholars of knowledge are mentioned, Malik is the guiding star."[11]
23. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz - "Umar II" -- Eighth century Arab Muslin who was the eighth Umayyad caliph; ordered the first official collection of hadith; sent emissaries to China and Tibet inviting their rulers to accept Islam; expanded the acceptance of Islam in Persia and Egypt; conquered many territories from the Christian kingdoms in Spain.,
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (Arabic: عمر بن عبد العزيز, romanized: ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz; 2 November 682 – c. 5 February 720), commonly known as Umar II (عمر الثاني), was the eighth Umayyad caliph. He made various significant contributions and reforms to the society, and he has been described as "the most pious and devout" of the Umayyad rulers and was often called the first Mujaddid and sixth righteous caliph of Islam.[1]
He was also a cousin of the former caliph, being the son of Abd al-Malik's younger brother, Abd al-Aziz. He was also a matrilineal great-grandson of the second caliph, Umar ibn Al-Khattab.
Surrounded with great scholars, he is credited with having ordered the first official collection of Hadiths and encouraged education to everyone. He also sent out emissaries to China and Tibet, inviting their rulers to accept Islam. At the same time, he remained tolerant with non-Muslim citizens. According to Nazeer Ahmed, it was during the time of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz that the Islamic faith took roots and was accepted by huge segments of the population of Persia and Egypt.
Militarily, Umar is sometimes deemed a pacifist, since he ordered the withdrawal of the Muslim army in places such as Constantinople, Central Asia and Septimania despite being a good military leader. However, under his rule the Umayyads conquered many territories from the Christian kingdoms in Spain.
24. Abdul Qadir Gilani - Twelfth century Sunni Muslim preacher, ascetic, mystic, jurist and theologian; founder of the Qadiriyya tariqa of Sufism
ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī, (Persian: عبدالقادر گیلانی, Arabic: عبدالقادر الجيلاني, romanized: ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī) known by admirers as Muḥyī l-Dīn Abū Muḥammad b. Abū Sāliḥ ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī al-Ḥasanī wa'l-Ḥusaynī, was a Hanbali Sunni Muslim preacher, ascetic, mystic, jurist, and theologian, known for being the eponymous founder of the Qadiriyya tariqa (Sufi order) of Sufism.[10]
He was born on 11 Rabi' al-Thani 470 AH (March 23, 1078) in the town of Na'if in Gilan, Iran, and died on Monday, February 21, 1166 (11 Rabi' al-Thani 561 AH), in Baghdad.[11][nb 1][12] He was a Persian Hanbali Sunni jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad.[11][1][2] The Qadiriyya tariqa is named after him.[13]
The Qadiriyya[a] are members of the Sunni Qadiri tariqa (Sufi order). The tariqa got its name from Abdul Qadir Gilani (1077–1166, also transliterated Jilani), who was a Hanbali scholar from Gilan, Iran. The order relies strongly upon adherence to the fundamentals of Sunni Islam.
The order, with its many offshoots, is widespread, particularly in the non-Arabic-speaking world, and can also be found in Turkey, Indonesia, Afghanistan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Balkans, Russia, Palestine, China,[1] and East and West Africa.[2]
The founder of the Qadiriyya, Abdul Qadir Gilani, was a scholar and preacher.[3] Having been a pupil at the madrasa of Abu Sa'id al-Mubarak, he became the leader of this school after al-Mubarak's death in 1119. Being the new sheikh, he and his large family lived in the madrasa until his death in 1166, when his son, Abdul Razzaq, succeeded his father as sheikh. Abdul Razzaq published a hagiography of his father, emphasizing his reputation as founder of a distinct and prestigious Sufi order.[4]
The Qadiriyya flourished, surviving the Mongolian conquest of Baghdad in 1258, and remained an influential Sunni institution. After the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, the legend of Gilani was further spread by a text entitled The Joy of the Secrets in Abdul-Qadir's Mysterious Deeds (Bahjat al-asrar fi ba'd manaqib 'Abd al-Qadir) attributed to Nur al-Din 'Ali al-Shattanufi, who depicted Gilani as the ultimate channel of divine grace[4] and helped the Qadiri order to spread far beyond the region of Baghdad.[4]
By the end of the fifteenth century, the Qadiriyya had distinct branches and had spread to Morocco, Spain, Turkey, India, Ethiopia, Somalia, and present-day Mali.[4] Established Sufi sheikhs often adopted the Qadiriyya tradition without abandoning leadership of their local communities. During the Safavid dynasty's rule of Baghdad from 1508 to 1534, the sheikh of the Qadiriyya was appointed chief Sufi of Baghdad and the surrounding lands. Shortly after the Ottoman Empire conquered Baghdad in 1534, Suleiman the Magnificent commissioned a dome to be built on the mausoleum of Abdul-Qadir Gilani, establishing the Qadiriyya as his main allies in Iraq.
Khawaja Abdul-Allah, a sheikh of the Qadiriyya and a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, is reported to have entered China in 1674 and traveled the country preaching until his death in 1689.[4][5] One of Abdul-Allah's students, Qi Jingyi Hilal al-Din, is said to have permanently rooted Qadiri Sufism in China. He was buried in Linxia City, which became the center of the Qadiriyya in China.[1] By the seventeenth century, the Qadiriyya had reached Ottoman-occupied areas of Europe.
Sultan Bahu contributed to the spread of Qadiriyya in western India. His method of spreading the teachings of the Sufi doctrine of Faqr was through his Punjabi couplets and other writings, which numbered more than 140.[citation needed] He granted the method of dhikr and stressed that the way to reach divinity was not through asceticism or excessive or lengthy prayers but through selfless love carved out of annihilation in God, which he called fana.[citation needed]
Sheikh Sidi Ahmad al-Bakka'i (Arabic: الشيخ سيدي أحمد البكاي بودمعة of the Kunta family, born in the region of the Noun river, d. 1504 in Akka) established a Qadiri zawiya (Sufi residence) in Walata. In the sixteenth century the family spread across the Sahara to Timbuktu, Agades, Bornu, Hausaland, and other places, and in the eighteenth century large numbers of Kunta moved to the region of the middle Niger where they established the village of Mabruk. Sidi Al-Mukhtar al-Kunti (1728–1811) united the Kunta factions by successful negotiation, and established an extensive confederation. Under his influence the Maliki school of Islamic law was reinvigorated and the Qadiriyyah order spread throughout Mauritania, the middle Niger region, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Futa Toro, and Futa Jallon. Kunta colonies in the Senegambian region became centers of Muslim teaching.[6]
Sheikh Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) from Gobir popularized the Qadiri teachings in Nigeria. He was well educated in classical Islamic science, philosophy, and theology. He also became a revered religious thinker. In 1789 a vision led him to believe he had the power to work miracles, and to teach his own mystical wird, or litany. His litanies are still widely practiced and distributed in the Islamic world.[7] Dan Fodio later had visions of Abdul Qadir Gilani, the founder of the Qadiri tariqah, an ascension to heaven, where he was initiated into the Qadiriyya and the spiritual lineage of Muhammad. His theological writings dealt with concepts of the mujaddid "renewer" and the role of the Ulama in teaching history, and other works in Arabic and the Fula language.[8]
25. Ibn Sina - Known in West as Avicenna; Eleventh century Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers and writers of the Golden Age of Islam; widely regarded as the father of early modern medicine as well as the father of Clinical Pharmacology. His most famous work is the Canon of Medicine.
Ibn Sina (ابن سینا), commonly known as Avicenna in the West (/ˌævɪˈsɛnə, ˌɑːvɪ-/; c. 980 – June 1037), was a Persian[4][5][6][7] polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age,[8] and the father of early modern medicine.[9][10][11] Sajjad H. Rizvi has called Avicenna "arguably the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era".[12] He was a Muslim Peripatetic philosopher influenced by Greek Aristotelian philosophy. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.[13]
His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia[14][15][16] which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities[17] and remained in use as late as 1650.[18]
Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics and works of poetry.[19]
The Book of Healing (Arabic: کتاب الشفاء, romanized: Kitāb al-Shifāʾ; Latin: Sufficientia; also known as The Cure or Assepha) is a scientific and philosophical encyclopedia written by Abu Ali ibn Sīna (aka Avicenna) from medieval Persia, near Bukhara in Maverounnahr. He most likely began to compose the book in 1014, completed it around 1020,[1] and published it in 1027.[2][3]
This work is Ibn Sina's major work on science and philosophy, and is intended to "cure" or "heal" ignorance of the soul. Thus, despite its title, it is not concerned with medicine, contrast to Avicenna's earlier The Canon of Medicine (5 vols.) which is, in fact, medical.
The book is divided into four parts: logic, natural sciences, mathematics (a quadrivium of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music), and metaphysics.[3] It was influenced by ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle; Hellenistic thinkers such as Ptolemy; and earlier Persian/Muslim scientists and philosophers, such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alfarabi), and Al-Bīrūnī.
The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb; Persian: قانون در طب, Qanun-e dâr Tâb) is an encyclopedia of medicine in five books compiled by Persian physician-philosopher Avicenna (ابن سینا, Ibn Sina) and completed in 1025.[1] Perhaps one of the most famous and influential early books, that continued to influence later creations.[2] It presents an overview of the contemporary medical knowledge of the Islamic world, which had been influenced by earlier traditions including Greco-Roman medicine (particularly Galen),[3] Persian medicine, Chinese medicine and Indian medicine.
The Canon of Medicine remained a medical authority for centuries. It set the standards for medicine in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world and was used as a standard medical textbook through the 18th century in Europe.[4][5] It is an important text in Unani medicine, a form of traditional medicine practiced in India.[6]
26. Ibn Taymiyyah - Fourteenth century Sunni scholar; polymath, theoogian; judge, philosopher. His critical views on widely accepted doctrines such as the veneration of saints and the visitation of their tomb shrines greatly influenced Muhammad ibn Abd al- Wahhab, the founder of the Wahhabi movement which governs modern day Saudi Arabia
Taqī ad-Dīn ʾAḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī (Arabic: تقي الدين أحمد بن عبد الحليم بن عبد السلام النميري الحراني, January 22, 1263 – September 26, 1328), known simply Ibn Taymiyyah (ابن تيمية),[11][12] was a Sunni Islamic scholar,[13] muhaddith, polymath, theologian, judge, philosopher,[14][15] and sometimes controversial thinker and political figure.[16][13] He is known for his diplomatic involvement with the Ilkhanid ruler Ghazan Khan and for his involvement at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar which ended the Mongol invasions of the Levant.[17] A member of the Hanbali school, Ibn Taymiyyah's iconoclastic views on widely accepted doctrines of his time such as the veneration of saints and the visitation to their tomb-shrines made him unpopular with many scholars and rulers of the time, under whose orders he was imprisoned several times.[18]
A polarising figure in his own times and in the centuries that followed,[19][20] Ibn Taymiyyah has become one of the most influential medieval writers in contemporary Islam,[18] where his particular interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah and his rejection of some aspects of classical Islamic tradition are believed to have had considerable influence on contemporary ultra-conservative movements such as Salafi-Jihadism.[21][22][23] Particular aspects of his teachings had a profound influence on Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of the Hanbali reform movement practiced in Saudi Arabia, and on other later Wahabi scholars.[8] Rashid Rida considered him as the renewer of the Islamic 7th century of Hijri year.[24] Moreover, Ibn Taymiyyah's controversial fatwa allowing jihad against other Muslims is referenced by al-Qaeda and other jihadi groups.[25][26] Their reading of Ibn Taymiyyah's thought has been challenged by recent scholarship.[27][28]
27. Nizam al-Mulk - Eleventh century Persian scholar, political philosopher and vizier of the Seljuk Empire; founded madrasas (schools) in cities throughout the Seljuk Empire; wrote the Siyasatnama (Book of Government), a politicalt treatise the usese historical examples to discuss justice, effective rule, and the role of government in Islamic society.
Abu Ali Hasan ibn Ali Tusi (April 10, 1018 – October 14, 1092), better known by his honorific title of Nizam al-Mulk (Persian: نظامالملک, lit. 'Order of the Realm'[3]) was a Persian[4][5] scholar, political philosopher and vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising from a lowly position,[6] he was the de facto ruler of the empire for 20 years after the assassination of sultan Alp Arslan in 1072,[7] serving as the archetypal "good vizier" of Islamic history.[6]
One of his most important legacies was founding madrasa in cities throughout the Seljuk Empire. These were called nezamiyehs after him.[8] He wrote Siyasatnama (Book of Government), a political treatise that uses historical examples to discuss justice, effective rule, and the role of government in Islamic society.[9]
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The Great Seljuk Empire[11][b] or the Seljuk Empire, was a high medieval Turko-Persian[14] Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks.[15] At the time of its greatest extent, the Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area, stretching from western Anatolia and the Levant in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south.
The Seljuk empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril (990–1063) and his brother Chaghri (989–1060). From their homelands near the Aral Sea, the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia, before eventually conquering Baghdad and eastern Anatolia. The Seljuks won the battle of Manzikert in 1071, and then conquered most of the rest of Anatolia, wresting it from the Byzantine Empire. This was one of the impetuses for the First Crusade (1095–1099). The Seljuk empire began to decline in the 1140s, and by 1194 had been supplanted by the Khwarazmian Empire.
Seljuk gave his name to both the empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuk empire united the fractured political landscape of the eastern Islamic world and played a key role in both the First Crusade and Second Crusade. The Seljuks also played an important part in the creation and expansion of multiple art forms during the period in which they had influence.[16]
Highly Persianized[17] in culture[18] and language,[19] the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition,[20] even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia.[21][22] The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire, for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states, led to the progressive Turkicization of those areas.[23]
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Siyāsatnāmeh (Persian: سياست نامه, "Book of Politics[1]"), also known as Siyar al-mulûk (Arabic:سیرالملوك, i.e.: The Lives of Kings), is the most famous work by Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of Nizamiyyah schools in medieval Persia and vazier to the Seljuq sultans Alp Arslan and Malik Shah. Nizam al-Mulk possessed "immense power" [2] as the head administration for the Seljuq empire over a period of 30 years and was responsible for establishing distinctly Persian forms of government and administration which would last for centuries.[3] A great deal of his approach to governing is contained within the Siyasatnameh which is in a tradition of Persian-Islamic writing known as the "Mirrors for Princes".
Written in Persian and composed in the eleventh century, the Siyasatnameh was created following the request by Malik Shah that his ministers produce books on government, administration and the troubles facing the nation. However, the treatise compiled by Nizam al-Mulk was the only one to receive approval and was consequently accepted as forming "the law of the constitution of the nation".[4] In all it consists of 50 chapters concerning religion, politics, and various other issues of the day with the final 11 chapters - written shortly prior to Nizam's assassination - dealing mostly with dangers facing the empire and particularly the ascendant threat of the Ismailis.[5] The treatise is concerned with guiding the ruler with regard to the realities of government and how it should be run. It covers "the proper role of soldiers, police, spies, and finance officials"[6] and provides ethical advice emphasizing the need for justice and religious piety in the ruler. Nizam al-Mulk defines in detail what he views as justice; that all classes be "given their due" and that the weak be protected. Where possible justice is defined by both custom and Muslim law and the ruler is held responsible to God.
Anecdotes rooted in Islamic, and occasionally pre-Islamic Persian, culture and history with popular heroes - for example, Mahmud of Ghazna and the pre-Islamic Shah Khosrow Anushirvan - who were considered as exemplars of good and virtue frequently appearing.[7] The Siyasatnameh is considered to provide insight into the attitude of the Persian elite of the 12th century towards the past of their civilization as well as evidence for methods of the bureaucracy and the extent it was influenced by the pre-Islamic traditions.[8]
The earliest remaining copy is located in the National Library of Tabriz, in Iran. It was first translated into French in 1891.
28. Al-Kindi - "The Father of Arab philosophy". Ninth century Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician and music theorist; oversaw the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into Arabic; introduced Indian numerals to the Islamic world which were relabeled as Arabic numerals
Abu Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (/ælˈkɪndi/; Arabic: أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; Latin: Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab[3][4][5][6][7] Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician and music theorist. Al-Kindi was the first of the Islamic peripatetic philosophers, and is hailed as the "father of Arab philosophy".[8][9][10]
Al-Kindi was born in Kufa and educated in Baghdad.[11] He became a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom, and a number of Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language. This contact with "the philosophy of the ancients" (as Hellenistic philosophy was often referred to by Muslim scholars) had a profound effect on him, as he synthesized, adapted and promoted Hellenistic and Peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world.[12] He subsequently wrote hundreds of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to medicine, pharmacology,[13] mathematics, astronomy, astrology and optics, and further afield to more practical topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes.[14][15]
In the field of mathematics, al-Kindi played an important role in introducing Indian numerals to the Islamic world, and subsequently, relabeled as Arabic numerals, to the Christian world, along with Al-Khwarizmi.[16] Al-Kindi was also one of the fathers of cryptography.[17][18] Building on the work of Al-Khalil (717–786),[19] Al-Kindi's book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages gave rise to the birth of cryptanalysis, was the earliest known use of statistical inference,[20] and introduced several new methods of breaking ciphers, notably frequency analysis.[21][22] Using his mathematical and medical expertise, he was able to develop a scale that would allow doctors to quantify the potency of their medication.[23]
The central theme underpinning al-Kindi's philosophical writings is the compatibility between philosophy and other "orthodox" Islamic sciences, particularly theology. And many of his works deal with subjects that theology had an immediate interest in. These include the nature of God, the soul and prophetic knowledge.[24] But despite the important role he played in making philosophy accessible to Muslim intellectuals, his own philosophical output was largely overshadowed by that of al-Farabi and very few of his texts are available for modern scholars to examine.
29. Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan - Seventh century Arab Muslim. First caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, the rival of Ali
Mu'awiya I (Arabic: معاوية بن أبي سفيان, romanized: Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān; c. 597, 603 or 605–April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and immediately after the four Rashidun ('rightly-guided') caliphs. Unlike his predecessors, who had been close, early companions of Muhammad, Mu'awiya was a relatively late follower of the Islamic prophet.
Mu'awiya and his father Abu Sufyan had opposed Muhammad, their distant Qurayshite kinsman and later Mu'awiya's brother-in-law, until Muhammad captured Mecca in 630. Afterward, Mu'awiya became one of Muhammad's scribes. He was appointed by Caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as a deputy commander in the conquest of Syria. He moved up the ranks through Umar's caliphate (r. 634–644) until becoming governor of Syria during the reign of his Umayyad kinsman, Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656). He allied with the province's powerful Banu Kalb tribe, developed the defenses of its coastal cities, and directed the war effort against the Byzantine Empire, including the first Muslim naval campaigns. In response to Uthman's assassination in 656, Mu'awiya took up the cause of avenging the caliph and opposed his successor, Ali. During the First Muslim Civil War, the two led their armies to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657, prompting an abortive series of arbitration talks to settle the dispute. Afterward, Mu'awiya gained recognition as caliph by his Syrian supporters and his ally Amr ibn al-As, who conquered Egypt from Ali's governor in 658. Following the assassination of Ali in 661, Mu'awiya compelled Ali's son and successor Hasan to abdicate and Mu'awiya's suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Caliphate.
Domestically, Mu'awiya relied on loyalist Syrian Arab tribes and Syria's Christian-dominated bureaucracy. He is credited with establishing government departments responsible for the postal route, correspondence, and chancellery. He was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. Externally, he engaged his troops in almost yearly land and sea raids against the Byzantines, including a failed siege of Constantinople, though the tide turned against the Arabs toward the end of his reign and he sued for a truce. In Iraq and the eastern provinces, he delegated authority to the powerful governors al-Mughira and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan, the latter of whom he controversially adopted as his brother. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of Ifriqiya (central North Africa) was launched by the commander Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, while the conquests in Khurasan and Sijistan on the eastern frontier were resumed.
Although Mu'awiya confined the influence of his Umayyad clan to the governorship of Medina, he nominated his own son, Yazid I, as his successor. It was an unprecedented move in Islamic politics and opposition to it by prominent Muslim leaders, including Ali's son Husayn, and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, persisted after Mu'awiya's death, culminating with the outbreak of the Second Muslim Civil War. While there is considerable admiration for Mu'awiya in the contemporary sources, he has been criticized for lacking the justice and piety of the Rashidun and transforming the office of the caliphate into a kingship. Besides these criticisms, Sunni Muslim tradition honors him as a companion of Muhammad and a scribe of Qur'anic revelation. In Shia Islam, Mu'awiya is reviled for opposing Ali, accused of poisoning his son Hasan, and held to have accepted Islam without conviction.
30. Jalal al-Din Rumi - Thirteenth century Persian poet and Sufi mystic; author of Masnavi, considered one of the greatest poems in literature; best selling poet in the United States; born in Balkh, Afghanistan
Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (Persian: جلالالدین محمد رومی), (also known as Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Balkhī (جلالالدین محمد بلخى), Mevlânâ/Mawlānā (مولانا, "our master"), Mevlevî/Mawlawī (مولوی, "my master")) more popularly known simply as Rumi (30 September 1207 – 17 December 1273), was a 13th-century Persian[11][1][12] poet, Hanafi faqih, Islamic scholar, Maturidi theologian, and Sufi mystic originally from Greater Khorasan in Greater Iran.[12][13] Rumi's influence transcends national borders and ethnic divisions: Iranians, Tajiks, Turks, Greeks, Pashtuns, other Central Asian Muslims, and the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent have greatly appreciated his spiritual legacy for the past seven centuries.[14] His poems have been widely translated into many of the world's languages and transposed into various formats. Rumi has been described as the "most popular poet"[15] and the "best selling poet" in the United States.[16][17]
Rumi's works are written mostly in Persian, but occasionally he also used Turkish,[18] Arabic,[19] and Greek[20][21][22] in his verse. His Masnavi (Mathnawi), composed in Konya, is considered one of the greatest poems of the Persian language.[23][24] His works are widely read today in their original language across Greater Iran and the Persian-speaking world.[25][26] Translations of his works are very popular, most notably in Turkey, Azerbaijan, the United States, and South Asia.[27] His poetry has influenced not only Persian literature, but also the literary traditions of the Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai, Urdu, Bengali and Pashto languages.[28][29]
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The Masnavi, or Masnavi-ye-Ma'navi (Persian: مثنوی معنوی), also written Mathnawi, or Mathnavi, is an extensive poem written in Persian by Jalal al-Din Muhammad Balkhi, also known as Rumi. The Masnavi is one of the most influential works of Sufism, commonly called "the Quran in Persian".[1] It has been viewed by many commentators as the greatest mystical poem in world literature.[2] The Masnavi is a series of six books of poetry that together amount to around 25,000 verses or 50,000 lines.[3][4] It is a spiritual text that teaches Sufis how to reach their goal of being truly in love with God.[5]
31. Harun al-Rashid - "Aaron the Just" or "Aaron the Rightly Guided"; Fifth Abbasid Caliph during the late eighth and early ninth centuries during the beginning of the Islamic Golden Age; establishe the Bayt al-Hikma (the "House of Wisdom") in Baghdad which made Baghdad a world center of knowledge; sent a clock to Charlemagne; was basis for some of the One Thousand and one Nights stories
32. Abd ar-Rahman I - Eighth century Emir of Cordoba; founder of the Umayyad Arab dynasty that ruled Spain for three hundred years
33. Tariq ibn Ziyad - Eighth century Berber Umayyad commander who initiated the Umayyad conquest of Visigothic Hispania (Spain and Portugal); led a large army and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from the North African coast consolidating his troops at what is today known as the "Rock of Gibraltar"; the name "Gibraltar"is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Tariq meaning "mountain of Tariq".
34. Mehmed II - "Mehmed the Conqueror"- Fifteenth century Ottoman sultan who at the age of 21 conquered Constantinople thereby ending the Byzantine Empire
35. Al-Biruni - Eleventh century scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age; called the "Father of Comparative Religion" and the "First Anthropologist"; traveled to India and wrote the Tarikh al-Hind ("History of India") after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India.
36. Suleyman the Magnificent - Sixteenth century Ottoman sultan; longest reigning (45 years) sultan in Ottoman history; oversaw the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire with a rich artistic, literary and architectural legacy; married a red haired Christian convert who was in his harem; was responsible for the deaths of two of his sons
37. Ja'far al-Sadiq - "Jafar the Truthful" -- Eighth century Muslim scholar; sixth Shi'a imam; founder of the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence; compiler of more hadiths than any other Shi'a imam; mentor of the Sunni scholars Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas both of whom founded schools of jurisprudence of their own; was poisoned by the caliph.
38. Abd ar-Rahman II - Ninth century ruler in Al-Andalus Iberia (Muslim Spain); fourth Umayyad Emir of Cordoba; oversaw the persecution of Christians who blasphemed against Islam; issued a decree by which Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom; repulsed the Vikings who had disembsarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville and attacked Cordoba; sponsored great building program in Cordoba and the great composer Ziryab.
39. Ziryab - "The Blackbird of Cordoba" -- Ninth century composer, poet and cultural influencer who excelled in cosmetics, culinarary arts and cosmetics; believed to have been of African descent due to his extremely dark complexion; became attached to the court of Abd ar-Rahman II and established a school of music that trained singers and dancers which influenced musical performance for generations after him; began the practice of changing clothes according to the weather, the season, and even the time of day; created deodorant to get rid of bad odors and promoted morning and evening baths; invented toothpaste; popularized a new hairstyle and the notion of shaving; introduced the notion of the three course meal with three separate courses consisting of soup, the main course and dessert; introduced the use of crystal glass for drinks, especially for his beloved wine.
40. Ibn Ishaq - Eighth century Muslim historian who collected oral traditions that formed the basis for an important biography of the Prophet Muhammad; Ibn Ishaq's collection became Sirat Rasul Allah ("Life of the Messenger of God")
41. Al-Ma'mun - Ninth century ruler; seventh Abbasid caliph; promoted the Translation Movement, the translation of Greek texts into Arabic; sponsored the flowering of learning and the sciences in Baghdad; published al-Khwarizmi's book now known as "Algebra"; named the Shi'a Imam Ali al-Rida as his successor; initiated the "mihna" (the inquisition) requiring scholars to assert that the Qur'an was created rather than being coeternal with God.
42. Ibn Rushd
43. Timur
44. Akbar the Great
45. Al-Farabi
46. Al-Tabari
47. Ibn Battuta
48. Jabir ibn Hayyan
49. Mimar Sinan
50. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya' al-Razi
51. Hasan al-Basri
52. Ibn al-Haytham
53. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj
54. Mahmud of Ghazna
55. Muhammad ibn al-Qasim
56. Musa ibn Nusayr
57. Shah Jahan
58. Al-Mas'udi
59. Al-Zahrawi
60. Ibn Arabi
61. 'Omar al-Khayyam
62. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani
63. Ibn Abd-al Wahhab
64. Rabi'a al-Adawiyyah
65. 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
66. Al-Hallaj
67. Shahrastani
68. Khwaja Baha' al-Din Naqshband
69. Ibn Hazm
70. Al-Tusi
71. Shah Rukh
72. Gowhar Shad
73. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
74. Firdausi
75. Zheng He
76. Mumtaz Mahal
77. Mu'in al-Din Chishti
78. Nur al-Din Zangi
79. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi
80. Malik Ambar
81. Awrangzeb Alamgir
82. Ibn Tufayl
83. Muhammad Ilyas
84. Sayyid Qutb
85. Yahya al-Nawawi
86. Muhammad Abduh
87. Muhammad Iqbal
88. Abul Hasan al-Shadhili
89. Shah Waliullah
90. Shamyl of Daghestan
91. Abul A'la Mawdudi
92. Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi
93. Shaykh Sa'di of Shiraz
94. Sayyid Ahmad Khan
95. The Mahdi of Sudan
96. Al-Muranabbi
97. Uthman Dan Fodio'
98. Mulla Sadra
99. Ali al-Rida
100. Fatima bint Musa
Others worthy of consideration:
Abdul Qadeer Khan, Hasan al-Banna, Ibn Saud, Malcolm X, Muhammad Ali, Malala Yousafzai, Maryam Mirzakhani, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Muhammad Yunus, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Osama Bin Laden, Ruhollah Khomeini, Sa'id Nursi
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Pre-2020 Version
(Based on Muhammad Mojlum Khan's 2008 The Muslim 100)
1. The Prophet Muhammad
2. Umar ibn al-Khattab
3. Ali ibn Abi Talib
4. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
5. Uthman ibn Affan
6. Aisha bint Abu Bakr
7. Khadija bint Khuwaylid
8. Khalid ibn al-Walid
9. Husain ibn Ali
10. Abu Hurayra
11. Fatimah bint Muhammad
12. Bilal ibn Rabah
13. Al-Bukhari
14. Abu Hanifah
15. Abu'l-Hasan al-Ash'ari
16. Saladin
17. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali
18. Abu Abdullah ibn al-Shafi'i
19. Al-Khwarazmi
20. Ahmad ibn Hanbal
21. Ibn Khaldun
22. Malik ibn Anas
23. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
24. Abdul Qadir Gilani
25. Ibn Sina
26. Ibn Taymiyyah
27. Nizam al-Mulk
28. Al-Kindi
29. Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan
30. Jalal al-Din Rumi
31. Harun al-Rashid
32. Abd ar-Rahman I
33. Tariq ibn Ziyad
34. Mehmed II
35. Al-Biruni
36. Suleyman the Magnificent
37. Ja'far al-Sadiq
38. Abd ar-Rahman II
39. Ibn Ishaq
40. Al-Ma'mun
41. Ibn Rushd
42. Timur
43. Akbar the Great
44. Al-Farabi
45. Al-Tabari
46. Ibn Battuta
47. Jabir ibn Hayyan
48. Mimar Sinan
49. Abu Bakr al-Razi
50. Hasan al-Basri
51. Ibn al-Haytham
52. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj
53. Mahmud of Ghazna
54. Muhammad ibn al-Qasim
55. Musa ibn Nusayr
56. Shah Jahan
57. Abul Hasan al-Mas'udi
58. Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi
59. Ibn Arabi
60. Umar Khayyam
61. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani
62. Ibn Abd-al Wahhab
63. Rabi'a al-Adawiyyah
64. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
65. Al-Hallaj
66. Hasan al-Banna
67. Khwajah Naqshband
68. Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi
69. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
70. Muhammad Ali Jinnah
71. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
72. Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud'
73. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
74. Firdawsi of Persia
75. Mu'in al-Din Chishti
76. Nur al-Din Zangi
77. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi
78. Ayatollah Khomeini
79. Awrangzeb Alamgir
80. Ibn Tufayl
81. Muhammad Ilyas
82. Sayyid Qutb
83. Yahya al-Nawawi
84. Muhammad Abduh
85. Muhammad Iqbal
86. Abul Hasan al-Shadhili
87. Shah Waliullah
88. Shamyl of Daghestan
89. Abul A'la Mawdudi
90. Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi
91. Muhammad Yunus
92. Shaykh Sa'di of Shiraz
93. Sayyid Ahmad Khan
94. The Mahdi of Sudan
95. Al-Muranabbi
96. Uthman Dan Fodio'
97. Mulla Sadra
98. Malcolm X
99. Sa'id Nursi
100. Muhammad Ali
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