As a child, Muhammad took care of 'Ali. After Muhammad's invitation to his close relatives, 'Ali became one of the first believers in Islam at the age of about 9 to 11. 'Ali then publicly accepted Muhammad's invitation on Yawn al-Inzar and Muhammad called him his brother, guardian and successor.
'Ali helped Muhammad emigrate on the night of Laylat al-Mabit, by sleeping in his place. After migrating to Medina and establishing a brotherhood pact between the Muslims, Muhammad chose 'Ali as his brother. In Medina, 'Ali was the flag bearer in most of the wars and became famous for his bravery.
The issue of 'Ali's right to the post-Muhammad caliphate caused a major rift between Muslims and divided them into Shia and Sunni groups. On his return from the Farewell Pilgrimage, at Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad uttered the phrase, "Whoever I am his Mawla, this Ali is his Mawla." But the meaning of Mawla was disputed by Shias and Sunnis. On this basis, the Shias believe in the establishment of the Imamate and caliphate regarding Ali, but the Sunnis interpret the word mawla as friendship and love.
While 'Ali was preparing Muhammad's body for burial, a group of Muslims met at Saqifah and pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr. 'Ali pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr after six months, but did not take part in the subsequent wars and political activity, except for the election of the third caliph Uthman. However, 'Ali advised the three caliphs on religious, judicial, and political matters whenever they wanted.
After Uthman was killed, 'Ali was elected as the next Caliph, which coincided with the first civil wars between Muslims. Ali faced two separate opposition forces: a group led by Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr in Mecca, who wanted to convene a council to determine the caliphate; and another group led by Mu'awiya in the Levant, who demanded revenge for Uthman's blood. 'Ali defeated the first group in the Battle of the Camel. However, in the end, the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya was militarily ineffective, and led to an arbitration which ended politically against 'Ali. Then, in the year 38 AH (658-659 CC), 'Ali fought with the Kharijites - who considered 'Ali's acceptance of arbitration as heresy, and revolted against him. 'Ali fought the Kharijites in Nahrawan and defeated them. However, 'Ali was eventually killed in the mosque of Kufa by the sword of one of the Kharijites, Ibn Muljam Moradi. 'Ali was buried outside the city of Kufa. Later, 'Ali's shrine and the city of Najaf were built around his tomb.
Despite the impact of religious differences on Muslim historiography, sources agree that 'Ali strictly observed religious duties and avoided worldly possessions. Some writers accused him of a lack of political skill and flexibility. 'Ali tended not to want to involve himself in the game of political deception which deprived him of success in life, but, in the eyes of his admirers, he became an example of the piety of the primary un-corrupted Islam, as well as the chivalry of pre-Islamic Arabia. Several books are dedicated to the hadiths, sermons, and prayers narrated by him, the most famous of which is Nahj al-Balagha.
In the first year of ‘Ali’s reign, ‘Ali was forced to deal with a rebellion led by ‘A’isha, the widow of Muhammad. ‘A’isha bitterly opposed ‘Ali’s claim of succession, perhaps because ‘Ali had opposed the caliphate of her father Abu Bakr. Although ‘A’isha’s rebellion was suppressed in 657, disputes over ‘Ali’s right to the caliphate were not resolved. Mu‘awiyah I, a member of ‘Uthman’s family, refused to recognize ‘Ali as caliph and claimed the caliphate himself. This dispute continued until 661 when ‘Ali was murdered at Kufa by a member of the Kharijite sect. Mu‘awiyah I was then acknowledged as caliph.
Dissension between ‘Ali’s adherents and his opponents continued to trouble the Muslim world. This conflict led to the first and most important schism in Islam, between the Shi‘a (adherents of ‘Ali) and the Sunni (orthodox Muslims).
‘Ali is the ancestor of the Fatimid line of caliphs, who traced their descent from ‘Ali and Fatima.
‘Ali was about ten years old when he embraced Islam. He is considered to have been the second of Muhammad’s converts, the first being Muhammad’s wife, Khadija. ‘Ali grew up in Muhammad’s household, and on the night of the Hijra he occupied the Prophet’s bed in order to facilitate Muhammad’s flight to Medina.
Some months later, ‘Ali married Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, and from their marriage were born Hasan and Hussein (Husayn).
During Muhammad’s lifetime, ‘Ali took part in almost all the military expeditions. One exception was Tabuk, during which ‘Ali had the command at Medina. ‘Ali’s bravery as standard-bearer and sometimes commander of these expeditions became legendary.
After Muhammad’s death, a dispute arose between ‘Ali and other companions of Muhammad concerning the succession, resulting in ‘Ali, at first, refusing to recognize Abu Bakr’s election as caliph. This dispute ultimately divided the Muslims into two major factions: those sympathetic to ‘Ali’s claim, known as the Shi‘a -- the “partisans” -- of ‘Ali; and the Sunni -- those who accepted the caliphates of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman with ‘Ali as the fourth caliph.
Although regarded as a valued counsellor, it is doubtful whether ‘Ali’s advice was accepted by the second caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab. During the caliphate of ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, ‘Ali accused the caliph of innovation -- bid‘a -- in religious matters, and on political questions he joined ‘Uthman’s opponents.
After the killing of ‘Uthman, ‘Ali allowed himself to be nominated caliph by the rebels who had the former caliph’s blood on their hands. This provoked strong reactions in Mecca, Syria and Egypt. Mu‘awiya, governor of Syria and cousin of the slain ‘Uthman, accused ‘Ali of complicity with the murderers and refused to pay homage to him.
As the fourth caliph, ‘Ali inherited events which he could not avert. Turmoil brewed. The Prophet’s widow ‘A’isha, perhaps harboring a long standing resentment against ‘Ali for ‘Ali’s participation in making slanderous allegations against her many years before, engaged in Mecca in an active propaganda campaign against the new caliph, and was soon joined by Talha ibn ‘Ubayd Allah and al-Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam. In the famous Battle of the Camel of 656, Talha and al-Zubayr lost their lives, and ‘A’isha was peremptorily ordered by ‘Ali to return to Medina under escort.
Meanwhile, Mu‘awiya, the Syrian governor, continued to demand the surrender of the murderers of ‘Uthman and continued to refuse to pay homage to ‘Ali. The deeper cause of the struggle was whether pre-eminence lay with Syria or with Iraq. ‘Ali took the offensive, and the two armies met on the plain of Siffin. Mu‘awiya, about to lose the battle, had his soldiers hoist copies of the Qur’an on their lances. ‘Ali was forced to submit the difference to consultation of the Qur’an i.e., to arbitration.
Already at Siffin, a group of individuals rejected arbitration with the cry “there is no decision save that of God”. After ‘Ali’s return to Kufa in Iraq, they learned that he had sent his arbitrator Abu Musa al-Ash‘ari to meet ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, Mu‘awiya’s arbitrator. The group then secretly left Kufa and were joined by dissidents from Basra at al-Nahrawan on the eastern bank of the Tigris river. These dissidents, those who had “departed”, were thereafter called Kharijites. ‘Ali’s troops attacked and massacred them at al-Nahrawan, but as a consequence many more defections from ‘Ali’s cause followed and he had to give up the campaign against Mu‘awiya.
The arbitrators met at Adhruh. Abu Musa and ‘Amr agreed to declare both ‘Ali and Mu‘awiya deposed, but in the public discourses that followed, ‘Amr declared ‘Ali deposed and confirmed Mu‘awiya’s nomination. In the end, no decision on the caliphate was taken.
‘Ali continued to be regarded as caliph by his partisans (although their numbers were daily diminishing) while Mu‘awiya continued to be supported by his followers. ‘Ali remained passive at Kufa when Mu‘awiya made small incursions into Iraq, Arabia and Yemen. In 661, the Kharijite Ibn Muljam, in revenge for the men slain at al-Nahrawan, struck ‘Ali in the mosque of Kufa with a poisoned sword. ‘Ali died two days later at the age of sixty-three. His burial site was at al-Najaf, some miles from Kufa, where his Masshad -- his burial shrine as a martyr -- subsequently arose in the time of the ‘Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. This site became an important destination for the Shi‘a pilgrimage and center for the Twelver Shi‘a learning.
The murder of ‘Ali represents a watershed in the understanding of history among not only the Shi‘a, but also among the Sunni. ‘Ali was the last caliph coming from the group of Muslims that had converted before the hijra (in 622), and he was also the last elected caliph. After ‘Ali, the Caliphate became hereditary and without the nominal legitimacy.
The personality of ‘Ali is difficult to assess. While his stature as a distinguished judge, pious believer, and ardent warrior for Islam is unquestioned, the Shi‘a concept of ‘Ali alongside God and the Prophet as a pivot of religious belief is rejected by the Sunni. Indeed, there are actually two competing perspectives of ‘Ali, one held by the Sunni and one held by the Shi‘a. Though both perspectives recognize ‘Ali’s legitimacy as caliph, the Sunni perspective views ‘Ali as being a weak ruler with many faults. On the other hand, the Shi‘a regard ‘Ali as being infallible and the possessor of a divine light passed on from Muhammad to him, and later from him on to the other imams.
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