‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan
‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan (Usman ibn ‘Affān) (c. 579, Taif, Arabia - July 17, 656, Medina, Arabia). Third caliph (r.644-656). ‘Uthman was an early, pre-hijra convert to Islam. He belonged to the Banu Umayya and accepted the teaching of the Prophet several years before the hijra.
He was a rich merchant, and married the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya. He is believed to have taken part in the migration to Abyssinia and in the Hijra to Medina, but he did not take part in the battle of Badr. After the death of Ruqayya, he married Umm Kulthum, another daughter of the Prophet. After the murder of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab in 644, he was elected caliph by a council of the six oldest Companions, a council that was named by ‘Umar on his deathbed. ‘Uthman was chosen because he was a member of the Prophet’s family through his marriages, because he was an Umayyad and probably because he was the most outstanding candidate, since ‘Ali, al-Zubayr ibn al- ‘Awwam, Talha ibn ‘Ubayd Allah, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf ruled one another out. Since he was an Umayyad, his appointment may be seen as a victory of the old Meccan oligarchy.
During his caliphate many serious grievances were uttered, the first and perhaps gravest charge being that he appointed members of his family to the governorships in the provinces of Syria and Egypt. He also assigned the booty of the expeditions not entirely to the soldiers, but reserved a share for his governors and family by developing the system of fiefs. Cutting down the military pensions because of the economic crisis following the sudden enriching of the Arab masses also increased the number of malcontents. One of the steps which contributed very greatly to stirring up the religious element against ‘Uthman was the official edition of the Qur’an, the destruction of the provincial copies being considered most odious.
In 650, the first movements of rebellion began in Iraq, which was suffering most from the economic crisis, especially in Kufa, and spread to Egypt. In 655, rebel factions advanced on Medina. ‘Uthman gave in to all their demands, but on returning, the Egyptians found a letter from the caliph to his foster brother ‘Abd Allah ibn Sa‘d (Ibn Abi Sarh), the governor of Egypt, containing an order to put to death or mutilate the leaders of the movement. ‘Uthman denied that the letter was genuine, but his house became besieged.
Opposition to ‘Uthman’s caliphate formed in Medina, especially among members of the family of the Prophet and other Meccans, and more overtly in Iraq and Egypt. The Companions, including ‘Ali, maintained an attitude of neutrality and ‘A’isha, the widow of the Prophet, who was opposed to ‘Uthman, left for Mecca. ‘Uthman refused to abdicate. It is not known whether it was Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of the first caliph and brother of ‘A’isha, or another who gave the coup de grace. In June 656 of the Christian calendar, a group of Egyptian army rebels with grievances invaded Medina and mortally wounded ‘Uthman. This assassination established a woeful precedent in Islamic history.
‘Ali was subsequently elected caliph, but he was destined to be challenged by Mu‘awiya, the Umayyad governor of Syria. The political, and soon also the religious unity of Islam was at an end and the period of schisms and civil wars had begun.
In the final analysis, history shows that the outstanding achievement of ‘Uthman’s reign was his establishment of the definitive text of the Qur’an shortly after 650. The Qur’an became a living legacy of ‘Uthman’s short, turbulent reign.
A chronology of Uthman’s life reads as follows:
Uthman was probably born in Mecca around 580 of the Christian calendar, the member of the powerful Umayyad clan. We do not know with any certainty which year he was born, nor where -- but Mecca is most likely.
In the early seventh century, Uthman became a wealthy merchant, and a gentleman of his time.
In 615, Uthman became a Muslim. Although some sources indicate that his conversion may have actually occurred at a later date.
Around 620, Uthman married Muhammad’s daughter Ruqaiya.
In 624, Ruqaiya died during the Battle of Badr, preventing Uthman from participating in the battle.
Around 625, Uthman married another daughter of Muhammad, Umm Kulthum.
In 644, Uthman was chosen the new caliph. There had been seven candidates, but the other ones were controversial. Uthman was a compromise candidate, and was not chosen because any particular outstanding quality of his own.
In 650, there were rebellions in Iraq and Egypt, protesting against Uthman’s policy of distributing wealth and land won in the war.
In June of 656, Uthman was besieged in his own home by a group of Egyptian Muslims. It is believed that Muhammad’s favorite wife. Aisha played a central part in the campaign against Uthman. On June 17, Uthman was assassinated in Medina by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Following this death, tensions in the Muslim world became even more problematic than under the last years of his reign. He would be succeeded by Ali as caliph.
Uthman is credited for having centralized the administration of the Muslim state, and it was during his reign that the compilation of the Qur’an was completed.
Uthman was the last caliph who could enjoy unity in the Muslim world, even if there was much displeasure with his regime. This displeasure came from a number of reasons. The most important reason was his policy towards war booty from the many military expeditions. Soldiers and officers felt that Uthman confiscated to large parts of the booty for his own administration and his family. He established a system of landed fiefs and distributed many of the provincial governorships to members of his family.
The dissatisfaction of his time was no more problematic than what other rulers had to cope with, including his predecessor Umar. As a matter of fact, Uthman’s politics were a continuation of Umar’s. But Uthman was not a particularly strong leader, and to a large degree controlled by his family. His politics would eventually result in his death. Through his weakness, Uthman became one of the most important men of early Islam, paving for the first schisms in the religion, schisms that still exist (Sunni, Shi‘a, and Khariji).
Another source of discontent was the process of compiling the Qur’an. The qurra’, who were the bearers of the sacred text both in verbal and written form, exercised a power which was openly questioned by contemporary Muslims. The qurra’ was suspected of both holding back passages, as well as manipulating other passages.
‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan (Usman ibn ‘Affān) (c. 579, Taif, Arabia - July 17, 656, Medina, Arabia). Third caliph (r.644-656). ‘Uthman was an early, pre-hijra convert to Islam. He belonged to the Banu Umayya and accepted the teaching of the Prophet several years before the hijra.
He was a rich merchant, and married the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya. He is believed to have taken part in the migration to Abyssinia and in the Hijra to Medina, but he did not take part in the battle of Badr. After the death of Ruqayya, he married Umm Kulthum, another daughter of the Prophet. After the murder of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab in 644, he was elected caliph by a council of the six oldest Companions, a council that was named by ‘Umar on his deathbed. ‘Uthman was chosen because he was a member of the Prophet’s family through his marriages, because he was an Umayyad and probably because he was the most outstanding candidate, since ‘Ali, al-Zubayr ibn al- ‘Awwam, Talha ibn ‘Ubayd Allah, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf ruled one another out. Since he was an Umayyad, his appointment may be seen as a victory of the old Meccan oligarchy.
During his caliphate many serious grievances were uttered, the first and perhaps gravest charge being that he appointed members of his family to the governorships in the provinces of Syria and Egypt. He also assigned the booty of the expeditions not entirely to the soldiers, but reserved a share for his governors and family by developing the system of fiefs. Cutting down the military pensions because of the economic crisis following the sudden enriching of the Arab masses also increased the number of malcontents. One of the steps which contributed very greatly to stirring up the religious element against ‘Uthman was the official edition of the Qur’an, the destruction of the provincial copies being considered most odious.
In 650, the first movements of rebellion began in Iraq, which was suffering most from the economic crisis, especially in Kufa, and spread to Egypt. In 655, rebel factions advanced on Medina. ‘Uthman gave in to all their demands, but on returning, the Egyptians found a letter from the caliph to his foster brother ‘Abd Allah ibn Sa‘d (Ibn Abi Sarh), the governor of Egypt, containing an order to put to death or mutilate the leaders of the movement. ‘Uthman denied that the letter was genuine, but his house became besieged.
Opposition to ‘Uthman’s caliphate formed in Medina, especially among members of the family of the Prophet and other Meccans, and more overtly in Iraq and Egypt. The Companions, including ‘Ali, maintained an attitude of neutrality and ‘A’isha, the widow of the Prophet, who was opposed to ‘Uthman, left for Mecca. ‘Uthman refused to abdicate. It is not known whether it was Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of the first caliph and brother of ‘A’isha, or another who gave the coup de grace. In June 656 of the Christian calendar, a group of Egyptian army rebels with grievances invaded Medina and mortally wounded ‘Uthman. This assassination established a woeful precedent in Islamic history.
‘Ali was subsequently elected caliph, but he was destined to be challenged by Mu‘awiya, the Umayyad governor of Syria. The political, and soon also the religious unity of Islam was at an end and the period of schisms and civil wars had begun.
In the final analysis, history shows that the outstanding achievement of ‘Uthman’s reign was his establishment of the definitive text of the Qur’an shortly after 650. The Qur’an became a living legacy of ‘Uthman’s short, turbulent reign.
A chronology of Uthman’s life reads as follows:
Uthman was probably born in Mecca around 580 of the Christian calendar, the member of the powerful Umayyad clan. We do not know with any certainty which year he was born, nor where -- but Mecca is most likely.
In the early seventh century, Uthman became a wealthy merchant, and a gentleman of his time.
In 615, Uthman became a Muslim. Although some sources indicate that his conversion may have actually occurred at a later date.
Around 620, Uthman married Muhammad’s daughter Ruqaiya.
In 624, Ruqaiya died during the Battle of Badr, preventing Uthman from participating in the battle.
Around 625, Uthman married another daughter of Muhammad, Umm Kulthum.
In 644, Uthman was chosen the new caliph. There had been seven candidates, but the other ones were controversial. Uthman was a compromise candidate, and was not chosen because any particular outstanding quality of his own.
In 650, there were rebellions in Iraq and Egypt, protesting against Uthman’s policy of distributing wealth and land won in the war.
In June of 656, Uthman was besieged in his own home by a group of Egyptian Muslims. It is believed that Muhammad’s favorite wife. Aisha played a central part in the campaign against Uthman. On June 17, Uthman was assassinated in Medina by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Following this death, tensions in the Muslim world became even more problematic than under the last years of his reign. He would be succeeded by Ali as caliph.
Uthman is credited for having centralized the administration of the Muslim state, and it was during his reign that the compilation of the Qur’an was completed.
Uthman was the last caliph who could enjoy unity in the Muslim world, even if there was much displeasure with his regime. This displeasure came from a number of reasons. The most important reason was his policy towards war booty from the many military expeditions. Soldiers and officers felt that Uthman confiscated to large parts of the booty for his own administration and his family. He established a system of landed fiefs and distributed many of the provincial governorships to members of his family.
The dissatisfaction of his time was no more problematic than what other rulers had to cope with, including his predecessor Umar. As a matter of fact, Uthman’s politics were a continuation of Umar’s. But Uthman was not a particularly strong leader, and to a large degree controlled by his family. His politics would eventually result in his death. Through his weakness, Uthman became one of the most important men of early Islam, paving for the first schisms in the religion, schisms that still exist (Sunni, Shi‘a, and Khariji).
Another source of discontent was the process of compiling the Qur’an. The qurra’, who were the bearers of the sacred text both in verbal and written form, exercised a power which was openly questioned by contemporary Muslims. The qurra’ was suspected of both holding back passages, as well as manipulating other passages.
Islamic history, particularly Sunni history, remembers Uthman in positive terms, calling him handsome, generous, and plain rather than luxurious. It is said that Uthman was one of the most handsome and charming men of his time. Uthman was well known for his reported generosity. During Muhammad's time, while in Medina, he financed the project for the construction of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi and purchased the well Beer Rauma, which he dedicated to the free use of all Muslims. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph.
Uthman apparently led a simple life even after becoming the Caliph of the Rashidun Empire, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life. The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal, the public treasury, but Uthman never took any salary for his service as a Caliph, as he was independently wealthy. Uthman also developed a custom to free slaves every Friday, look after the widows and orphans, and give unlimited charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader. He was a devoted Muslim. As a way of taking care of Muhammad’s wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman wasn't completely plain and simple, however: Uthman built a Palace for himself in Medina, known as Al-Zawar, with a notable feature being doors of precious wood. Although Uthman paid for the palace with his own money, Shia Muslims consider it his first step towards ruling like a King. Uthman's sister Amna bint Affan was married to Abdur Rahman bin Awf, one of the closest companion of Muhammad.
Usman ibn 'Affan see ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan
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