Khadija (Khadījah bint Khuwaylid) (Khadījah al-Kubra) (c.555 – 619). First wife of the Prophet Muhammad. She was a wealthy widow when she met Muhammad whom she took into her service and later married.
Khadija was born in Mecca, the daughter of Khuwalid bin Asad bin Abdul Uzza bin Qusayy and Fatimah bint Za'idah, of the Quraysh tribe and Banu Hashim clan. Her father was a wealthy merchant.
Around 570, she married for the first time, to a man of the Makhzumi clan. His name is not known with certainty. It is unknown when Khadija married for a second time, but it is clear that one of the husbands died, while the other one divorced her.
Around 585, Khadija’s father died. Around 595, Khadija asked Muhammad, a man fifteen years her junior, to marry her. Muhammad consented.
In 610, Muhammad received his first revelation, and it is believed that Khadija converted to Islam soon afterwards.
In 619, Khadija died a natural death in Mecca.
Khadija was older than Muhammad. Before her marriage to the Prophet, she had been married twice, and had engaged in trade. Khadija was a wealthy woman, either from inheritance or from her first two marriages, or from all sources. She also controlled a trade system in Arabia which reached as far north as Mesopotamia, and which probably helped to spread Islam in its nascent period.
After Muhammad had executed satisfactorily his commission as steward of her merchandise in Bosra (Syria), she offered him marriage.
Although she was an older woman, Khadija, nevertheless, bore Muhammad three (some sources say two) sons and four daughters: Ruqayya, Zaynab, ‘Umm Kulthum, and Fatima. All of Muhammad’s sons died in infancy. (Some sources claim that Ruqayya, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum were children of Khadija’s second husband, while other historians insist that they were the children of Muhammad.
Muhammad’s marriage to Khadija provided him with material and spiritual comfort. As for Khadija, herself, she is honored in Islam as being the first believer and the first convert to Islam. Traditionally, Khadija is credited with being Muhammad’s greatest supporter in the troubled early years of his mission. Khadija’s death (c. 619 C.C.), just three years before the hijra, is seen by most of Muhammad’s biographers as a major blow. As a result of her death during the infancy of Islam, there are no hadith from her describing her years with Muhammad. Nevertheless, she is credited with supporting and encouraging Muhammad, fostering his confidence in himself and his mission.
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid see Khadija
Khadijah al-Kubra see Khadija
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Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira (Khalid ibn al-Walid) (Khalid ibn al-Waleed) (Sayf-'ullah al-Maslul -- "The Drawn Sword of God" or "God's Withdrawn Sword" or "Sword of God") (592-642). Arab general who was the conqueror of northern Arabia, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. Khalid Ibn al-Walid was a general who fought against the Prophet at the Battle of Uhud which occurred in 625 C.C. At the Battle of Uhud, Khalid Ibn al-Walid’s brilliant tactical maneuvers led to the first military defeat of the nascent Muslim community. Later (in 627), Khalid converted to Islam and, as the chief general of the Caliph Abu Bakr, was responsible for the stunning conquests of Byzantine territory that laid the foundation for a rapidly expanding Islamic empire. He is credited with a famous desert crossing, which led to the conquest of al-Hira in 633 and consequently to the conquest of Iraq. He is considered to be one of the greatest military commanders in history having never lost a battle in over one hundred engagements even against numerically superior Byzantine and Persian forces.
Khālid ibn al-Walīd was one of the two generals (along with ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ) of the enormously successful Islamic expansion under the Prophet Muhammad and his immediate successors, Abū Bakr and ʿUmar.
Although he fought against Muhammad at Uḥud (625), Khālid was later converted (627/629) and joined Muhammad in the conquest of Mecca in 629; thereafter he commanded a number of conquests and missions in the Arabian Peninsula. After the death of Muhammad, Khālid recaptured a number of provinces that were breaking away from Islam. He was sent northeastward by the caliph Abū Bakr to invade Iraq, where he conquered Al-Ḥīrah. Crossing the desert, he aided in the conquest of Syria; and, though the new caliph, ʿUmar, formally relieved him of high command (for unknown reasons), Khālid remained the effective leader of the forces facing the Byzantine armies in Syria and Palestine.
Routing the Byzantine armies, he surrounded Damascus, which surrendered on September 4, 635, and pushed northward. Early in 636, he withdrew south of the Yarmūk River before a powerful Byzantine force that advanced from the north and from the coast of Palestine. The Byzantine armies were composed mainly of Christian Arab, Armenian, and other auxiliaries, however; and when many of these deserted the Byzantines, Khālid, reinforced from Medina and possibly from the Syrian Arab tribes, attacked and destroyed the remaining Byzantine forces along the ravines of the Yarmūk valley (August 20, 636). Almost 50,000 Byzantine troops were slaughtered, which opened the way for many other Islamic conquests.
Sayf-'ullah al-Maslul see Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira
The Drawn Sword of God see Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira
God's Withdrawn Sword see Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira
Sword of God see Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira
Khalid ibn al-Waleed see Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira
Khalid ibn al-Walid see Khalid ibn al-Walid ibn al-Mughira
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Khan, Abdul Qadeer
Abdul Qadeer Khan (b. April 1, 1936, Bhopal, Bhopal State, British India – d. October 10, 2021, Islamabad, Pakistan), known as A. Q. Khan, was a Pakistani nuclear physicist and metallurgical engineer who is colloquially known as the "father of Pakistan's atomic weapons program".
An emigre from India who migrated to Pakistan in 1952, Khan was educated in the metallurgical engineering departments of Western European technical universities where he pioneered studies in phase transitions of metallic alloys, uranium metallurgy, and isotope separation based on gas centrifuges. After learning of India's "Smiling Buddha" nuclear test in 1974, Khan joined his nation's clandestine efforts to develop atomic weapons when he founded the Khan Research Laboratories (KRL) in 1976 and was both its chief scientist and director for many years.
In January 2004, Khan was subjected to a debriefing by the Musharraf administration over evidence of nuclear proliferation handed to them by the Bush administration of the United States. Khan admitted his role in running the proliferation network – only to retract his statements in later years when he levelled accusations at the former administration of Pakistan's Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1990, and also directed allegations at President Musharraf over the controversy in 2008.
Khan was accused of selling nuclear secrets illegally and was put under house arrest in 2004, when he confessed to the charges and was pardoned by then President Pervez Musharraf. After years of house arrest, Khan successfully filed a lawsuit against the Federal Government of Pakistan at the Islamabad High Court whose verdict declared his debriefing unconstitutional and freed him on February 6, 2009. The United States reacted negatively to the verdict and the Obama administration issued an official statement warning that Khan still remained a "serious proliferation risk".
Abdul Qadeer Khan was born on April 1, 1936 in Bhopal, a city then in the erstwhile British Indian princely state of Bhopal State, and now the capital city of Madhya Pradesh. His family is of Pashtun origin. His father, Abdul Ghafoor, was a schoolteacher who once worked for the Ministry of Education, and his mother, Zulekha, was a housewife with a very religious mindset. His older siblings, along with other family members, had emigrated to Pakistan during the bloody partition of India (splitting off the independent state of Pakistan) in 1947. His siblings would often write to Khan's parents about the new life they had found in Pakistan.
After his matriculation from a local school in Bhopal, in 1952 Khan emigrated from India to Pakistan on the Sind Mail train, partly due to the reservation politics at that time, and religious violence in India during his youth had left an indelible impression on his world view. Upon settling in Karachi with his family, Khan briefly attended the D. J. Science College before transferring to the University of Karachi, where he graduated in 1956 with a Bachelor of Science (BSc) in physics with a concentration on solid-state physics.
From 1956 to 1959, Khan was employed by the Karachi Metropolitan Corporation (city government) as an Inspector of weights and measures, and applied for a scholarship that allowed him to study in West Germany. In 1961, Khan departed for West Germany to study material science at the Technical University in West Berlin, where he academically excelled in courses in metallurgy, but left West Berlin when he switched to the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands in 1965.
In 1962, while on vacation in The Hague, he met Henny – a British passport holder who had been born in South Africa to Dutch expatriates. She spoke Dutch and had spent her childhood in Africa before returning with her parents to the Netherlands where she lived as a registered foreigner. In 1963, he married Henny in a modest Muslim ceremony at Pakistan's embassy in The Hague. Khan and Henny together had two daughters.
In 1967, Khan obtained an engineer's degree in materials technology – an equivalent to a Master of Science (MS) offered in English-speaking nations such as Pakistan – and joined the doctoral program in metallurgical engineering at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. Khan worked under Belgian professor Martin J. Brabers at Leuven University, who supervised his doctoral thesis which Khan successfully defended, and graduated with a Doctor of Engineering degree in metallurgical engineering in 1972. His thesis included fundamental work on martensite and its extended industrial applications in the field of graphene morphology.
In 1972, Khan joined the Physics Dynamics Research Laboratory, an engineering firm based in Amsterdam, from Brabers's recommendation. The FDO was a subcontractor for the Urenco Group which was operating a uranium enrichment plant in Almelo and employed a gaseous centrifuge method to assure a supply of nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants in the Netherlands. Soon after, Khan left FDO when Urenco offered him a senior technical position, initially conducting studies on the uranium metallurgy.
Uranium enrichment is an extremely difficult process because uranium in its natural state is composed of just 0.71% of uranium-235 (U235), which is a fissile material, 99.3% of uranium-238 (U238), which is non fissile, and 0.0055% of uranium-234 (U234), a decay product which is also a non fissile. The Urenco Group utilized the Zippe-type of centrifugal method to electromagnetically separate the isotopes U234, U235, and U238 from sublimed raw uranium by rotating the uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas at up to ~100,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Khan, whose work was based on physical metallurgy of the uranium metal, eventually dedicated his investigations on improving the efficiency of the centrifuges by 1973–74.
Upon learning of India's surprise nuclear test, 'Smiling Buddha', in May 1974, Khan wanted to contribute to efforts to build an atomic bomb and met with officials at the Pakistani Embassy in The Hague, who dissuaded him by saying it was "hard to find" a job in PAEC (Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission) as a "metallurgist". In August 1974, Khan wrote a letter which went unnoticed, but he directed another letter through the Pakistani ambassador to the Prime Minister's Secretariat in September 1974.
Unbeknownst to Khan, his nation's scientists were already working towards the development of an atomic bomb under a secretive crash weapons program since January 20, 1972, that was being directed by Munir Ahmad Khan, a reactor physicist. After reading his letter, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had his military secretary run a security check on Khan, who was unknown at that time, for verification and asked PAEC to dispatch a team under Bashiruddin Mahmood that met Khan at his family home in Almelo and gave him Bhutto's letter to meet him in Islamabad. Upon arriving in December 1974, Khan took a taxi straight to the Prime Minister's Secretariat. He met with Prime Minister Bhutto in the presence of Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Agha Shahi, and Mubashir Hassan where he explained the significance of highly enriched uranium, with the meeting ending with Bhutto's remark: "He seems to make sense."
The next day, Khan met with Munir Ahmad and other senior scientists where he focused the discussion on production of highly enriched uranium (HEU), against weapon-grade plutonium, and explained to Bhutto why he thought the idea of "plutonium" would not work. Later, Khan was advised by several officials in the Bhutto administration to remain in the Netherlands to learn more about centrifuge technology but continue to provide consultation on the Project-706 enrichment program led by Mahmood. By December 1975, Khan was given a transfer to a less sensitive section when Urenco Group became suspicious of his indiscreet open sessions with Mahmood to instruct him on centrifuge technology. Khan began to fear for his safety in the Netherlands, ultimately insisting on returning home.
In April 1976, Khan joined the atomic bomb program and became part of the enrichment division, initially collaborating with Khalil Qureshi -- a physical chemist. Calculations performed by Khan were valuable contributions to centrifuges and a vital link to nuclear weapon research, but Khan continued to push for his ideas for development of weapon-grade uranium even though it had a low priority, with most efforts still aimed to produce military-grade plutonium. Because of his interest in uranium metallurgy and his frustration at having been passed over for director of the uranium division (the job was instead given to Bashiruddin Mahmood), Khan refused to engage in further calculations and caused tensions with other researchers. Khan became highly unsatisfied and bored with the research led by Mahmood – finally, he submitted a critical report to Bhutto, in which he explained that the "enrichment program" was nowhere near success.
Upon reviewing the report, Bhutto sensed a great danger as the scientists were split between military-grade uranium and plutonium and informed Khan to take over the enrichment division from Mahmood, who separated the program from PAEC by founding the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL). The ERL functioned directly under the Army's Corps of Engineers, with Khan being its chief scientist, and the army engineers located the national site at isolated lands in Kahuta for the enrichment program as an ideal site for preventing accidents.
The PAEC did not forgo its electromagnetic isotope separation program, and a parallel program was led by G. D. Alam at the Air Research Laboratories (ARL) located at Chaklala Air Force Base, even though Alam had not seen a centrifuge, and only had a rudimentary knowledge of the Manhattan Project. During this time, Alam accomplished a great feat by perfectly balancing the rotation of the first generation of centrifuge to ~30,000 rpm and was immediately dispatched to ERL which was suffering from many setbacks in setting up its own program under Khan's direction based on centrifuge technology dependent on Urenco's methods. Khan eventually committed to work on problems involving the differential equations concerning the rotation around fixed axis to perfectly balance the machine under influence of gravity and the design of first generation of centrifuges became functional after Khan and Alam succeeded in separating the 235U and 238U isotopes from raw natural uranium.
In the military circles, Khan's scientific ability was well recognized and he was often known by his moniker "Centrifuge Khan" and the national laboratory was renamed after him upon the visit of President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in 1983. In spite of his role, Khan was never in charge of the actual designs of the nuclear devices, their calculations, and eventual weapons testing which remained under the directorship of Munir Ahmad Khan and the PAEC.
The PAEC's senior scientists who worked with him and under him remember him as "an egomaniacal lightweight" given to exaggerating his scientific achievements in centrifuges. At one point, Munir Khan said that, "most of the scientists who work on the development of atomic bomb projects were extremely 'serious'. They were sobered by the weight of what they don't know; Abdul Qadeer Khan is a showman." During the timeline of the bomb program, Khan published papers on the analytical mechanics of balancing of rotating masses and thermodynamics with mathematical rigor to compete, but still failed to impress his fellow theorists at PAEC, generally in the physics community. In later years, Khan became a staunch critic of Munir Khan's research in physics, and on many occasions tried unsuccessfully to belittle Munir Khan's role in the atomic bomb projects. Their scientific rivalry became public and widely popular in the physics community and seminars held in the country over the years.
Many of Khan's theorists were unsure that military-grade uranium would be feasible on time without the centrifuges, since Alam had notified PAEC that the "blueprints were incomplete" and "lacked the scientific information needed even for the basic gas-centrifuges." Calculations by Tasneem Shah, and confirmed by Alam, showed that Khan's earlier estimation of the quantity of uranium needing enrichment for the production of weapon-grade uranium was possible, even with the small number of centrifuges deployed.
Khan stole the designs of the centrifuges from Urenco Group. However, they were riddled with serious technical errors, and while he bought some components for analysis, they were broken pieces, making them useless for quick assembly of a centrifuge. Its separative work unit (SWU) rate was extremely low, so that it would have to be rotated for thousands of RPMs at the cost of millions of taxpayers money, Alam maintained. Though Khan's knowledge of copper metallurgy greatly aided the innovation of centrifuges,it was the calculations and validation that came from his team of fellow theorists, including mathematician Tasneem Shah and Alam, who solved the differential equations concerning rotation around a fixed axis under the influence of gravity, which led Khan to come up with the innovative centrifuge designs.
Scientists have said that Khan would have never got any closer to success without the assistance of Alam and others. The issue is controversial. Khan maintained to his biographer that when it came to defending the "centrifuge approach" and really putting work into it, both Shah and Alam refused.
Khan was also very critical of PAEC's concentrated efforts towards developing a plutonium "implosion-type" nuclear devices and provided strong advocacy for the relatively simple "gun-type" device that only had to work with high-enriched uranium – a design concept of gun-type device he eventually submitted to the Ministry of Energy (MoE) and the Ministry of Defense (MoD). Khan downplayed the importance of plutonium despite many of the theorists maintaining that "plutonium and the fuel cycle has its significance", and he insisted on the uranium route to the Bhutto administration when France's offer for an extraction plant was in the offing.
Though he had helped to come up with the centrifuge designs, and had been a long-time proponent of the concept, Khan was not chosen to head the development project to test his nation's first nuclear-weapons (his reputation of a thorny personality likely played a role in this) after India conducted its series of nuclear tests, "Pokhran-II" in 1998. Intervention by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, General Jehangir Karamat, allowed Khan to be a participant and eye-witness his Pakistan's first nuclear test, "Chagai-I" in 1998. At a news conference, Khan confirmed the testing of the boosted fission devices while stating that it was KRL's highly enriched uranium (HEU) that was used in the detonation of Pakistan's first nuclear devices on May 28, 1998.
Many of Khan's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a small part in, and in response, he authored an article, "Torch-Bearers", which appeared in The News International, emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon's development. He made an attempt to work on the Teller-Ulam design for the hydrogen bomb, but the military strategists had objected to the idea as it went against the government's policy of minimum credible deterrence.
In the 1970s, Khan had been very vocal about establishing a network to acquire imported electronic materials from the Dutch firms and had very little trust of PAEC's domestic manufacturing of materials, despite the government accepting PAEC's arguments for the long term sustainability of the nuclear weapons program. At one point, Khan reached out to the People's Republic of China for acquiring the uranium hexafluoride (UF6) when he attended a conference there – the Pakistani Government sent it back to the People's Republic of China, asking KRL to use the UF6 supplied by PAEC.
In 1982, an unnamed Arab country reached out to Khan for the sale of centrifuge technology. Khan was very receptive to the financial offer, but one scientist alerted the Zia administration which investigated the matter, only for Khan to vehemently deny such an offer was made to him. The Zia administration tasked Major-General Ali Nawab, an engineering officer, to keep surveillance on Khan, which he did until 1983 when he retired from his military service, and Khan's activities went undetected for several years after.
In 1979, the Dutch government eventually probed Khan on suspicion of nuclear espionage but he was not prosecuted due to lack of evidence. However, the Dutch government did file a criminal complaint against him in a local court in Amsterdam, which sentenced him in absentia in 1985 to four years in prison. Upon learning of the sentence, Khan filed an appeal through his attorney, S. M. Zafar, who teamed up with the administration of Leuven University, and successfully argued that the technical information requested by Khan was commonly found and taught in undergraduate and doctoral physics at the university. The court subsequently exonerated Khan by overturning his sentence on a legal technicality. Reacting to the suspicions of espionage, Khan stressed that: "I had requested for it as we had no library of our own at KRL, at that time. All the research work [at Kahuta] was the result of our innovation and struggle. We did not receive any technical 'know-how' from abroad, but we cannot reject the use of books, magazines, and research papers in this connection."
In 1979, the Zia administration, which was making an effort to keep their nuclear capability discreet to avoid pressure from the Reagan administration of the United States, nearly lost its patience with Khan when he reportedly attempted to meet with a local journalist to announce the existence of the enrichment program. During the Indian Operation Brasstacks military exercise in 1987, Khan gave another interview to local press and stated: "the Americans had been well aware of the success of the atomic quest of Pakistan", allegedly confirming the speculation of technology export. At both instances, the Zia administration sharply denied Khan's statement and a furious President Zia met with Khan and used a "tough tone", promising Khan severe repercussions had he not retracted all of his statements, which Khan immediately did by contacting several news correspondents.
In 1996, Khan again appeared on his country's news channels and maintained that "at no stage was the program of producing 90% weapons-grade enriched uranium ever stopped", despite Benazir Bhutto's administration reaching an understanding with the United States Clinton administration to cap the program to three percent (3%) enrichment in 1990.
The innovation and improved designs of centrifuges were marked as classified for export restriction by the Pakistan government, though Khan was still in possession of earlier designs of centrifuges from when he worked for Urenco Group in the 1970s. In 1990, the United States alleged that highly sensitive information was being exported to North Korea in exchange for rocket engines. On multiple occasions, Khan levelled accusations against Benazir Bhutto's administration of providing secret enrichment information, on a compact disc (CD), to North Korea; these accusations were denied by Benazir Bhutto's staff and military personnel.
Between 1987 and 1989, Khan secretly leaked knowledge of centrifuges to Iran without notifying the Pakistan Government, although this issue is a subject of political controversy. In 2003, the European Union pressured Iran to accept tougher inspections of its nuclear program and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) revealed an enrichment facility in the city of Natanz, Iran, utilizing gas centrifuges based on the designs and methods used by the Urenco Group. The IAEA inspectors quickly identified the centrifuges as P-1 types, which had been obtained "from a foreign intermediary in 1989", and the Iranian negotiators turned over the names of their suppliers, which identified Khan as one of them.
In 2003, Libya negotiated with the United States to roll back its nuclear program to have economic sanctions lifted, effected by the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act, and shipped centrifuges to the United States that were identified as P-1 models by the American inspectors. Ultimately, the Bush administration launched its investigation of Khan, focusing on his personal role, when Libya handed over a list of its suppliers.
Starting in 2001, Khan served as an adviser on science and technology in the Musharraf administration and became a public figure who enjoyed much support from his country's political conservative sphere. In 2003, the Bush administration reportedly turned over evidence of a nuclear proliferation network that implicated Khan's role to the Musharraf administration. Khan was dismissed from his post on January 31, 2004. On February 4, 2004, Khan appeared on Pakistan Television (PTV) and confessed to running a proliferation ring, and transferring technology to Iran between 1989 and 1991, and to North Korea and Libya between 1991 and 1997. The Musharraf administration avoided arresting Khan but launched security hearings on Khan who confessed to the military investigators that former Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Beg had given authorization for technology transfer to Iran.
On February 5, 2004, President Pervez Musharraf issued a pardon to Khan as he feared that the issue would be politicized by his political rivals. Despite the pardon, Khan, who had strong conservative support, had badly damaged the political credibility of the Musharraf administration and the image of the United States which was attempting to win the hearts and minds of local populations during the height of the insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. While the local television news media aired sympathetic documentaries on Khan, the opposition parties in the country protested so strongly that the United States Embassy in Islamabad was compelled to point out to the Bush administration that the successor to Musharraf could be less friendly towards the United States. This revelation restrained the Bush administration from applying further direct pressure on Musharraf due to a strategic calculation that it might cause the loss of Musharraf as an ally.
In December 2006, the Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission (WMDC), headed by Hans Blix, stated that Khan could not have acted alone "without the awareness of the Pakistan Government". Blix's statement was also reciprocated by the United States government, with one anonymous American government intelligence official quoted by independent journalist and author Seymour Hersh: "Suppose if Edward Teller had suddenly decided to spread nuclear technology around the world. Could he really do that without the American government knowing?".
In 2007, United States and European Commission politicians as well as IAEA officials made several strong calls to have Khan interrogated by IAEA investigators, given the lingering skepticism about the disclosures made by Pakistan. However, Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz, who remained supportive of Khan and spoke highly of him, strongly dismissed the calls by terming it as "case closed".
In 2008, the security hearings were officially terminated by Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman General Tariq Majid who marked the details of debriefings as "classified". In 2008, in an interview, Khan laid the whole blame on former President Pervez Musharraf, and labelled Musharraf as the "Big Boss" for proliferation deals. In 2012, Khan also implicated Benazir Bhutto's administration in proliferation matters, pointing to the fact as she had issued "clear directions in thi[s] regard."
Khan's strong advocacy for nuclear sharing of technology eventually led to his ostracization by much of the scientific community. Nevertheless, Khan was still quite welcome in his country's political and military circles. After leaving the directorship of the Khan Research Laboratories in 2001, Khan briefly joined the Musharraf administration as a policy adviser on science and technology on a request from President Musharraf. In this capacity, Khan promoted increased defense spending on his nation's missile program to counter the perceived threats from the Indian missile program and advised the Musharraf administration on space policy. He presented the idea of using the Ghauri missile system as an expendable launch system to launch satellites into space.
At the height of the proliferation controversy in 2007, Khan was paid tribute by Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz on state television. While commenting in the last part of his speech, Aziz stressed: "The services of [nuclear] scientist ... Dr. [Abdul] Qadeer Khan are "unforgettable" for the country".
In the 1990s, Khan secured a fellowship with the Pakistan Academy of Sciences – he served as its president in 1996–97. Khan published two books on material science and started publishing his articles from KRL in the 1980s. Gopal S. Upadhyaya, an Indian metallurgist who attended Khan's conference and met him along with Kuldip Nayar, reportedly described Khan as being a proud Pakistani who wanted to show the world that scientists from Pakistan are inferior to no one in the world. Khan also served as project director of Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology and briefly served as a tenured professor of physics before joining the faculty of the Hamdard University; where he remained on the board of directors of the university until his death in 2021. Later, Khan helped established the A. Q. Khan Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering at Karachi University.
In 2012 Khan announced the formation of a conservative political advocacy group, Tehreek-e-Tahaffuz-e-Pakistan (Movement for the Protection of Pakistan). It was subsequently dissolved in 2013.
In August 2021, Khan was admitted to Khan Research Laboratories Hospital after testing positive for COVID-19. Khan died on October 10, 2021, at the age of 85 after being transferred to a hospital in Islamabad with lung problems. He was given a state funeral at the Faisal Mosque before being buried at the H-8 graveyard in Islamabad.
The Prime Minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan, expressed grief over his death in a tweet, adding that "for the people of Pakistan he was a national icon". President of Pakistan Arif Alvi also expressed sadness adding that "a grateful nation will never forget his services".
During his time in the atomic bomb project, Khan pioneered research in the thermal quantum field theory and condensed matter physics, while he co-authored articles on chemical reactions of the highly unstable isotope particles in the controlled physical system. He maintained his stance on the use of controversial technological solutions to both military and civilian problems, including the use of military technologies for civilian welfare. Khan also remained a vigorous advocate for a nuclear testing program and defense strength through nuclear weapons. He justified Pakistan's nuclear deterrence program as sparing his country the fate of Iraq or Libya. In an interview in 2011, Khan maintained his stance on peace through strength and vigorously defended the nuclear weapons program as part of the deterrence policy:
During his work on the nuclear weapons program and onwards, Khan faced heated and intense criticism from his fellow theorists, most notably Pervez Hoodbhoy who contested his scientific understanding in quantum physics. In addition, Khan's false claims that he was the "father" of the atomic bomb project since its inception and his personal attacks on Munir Ahmad Khan caused even greater animosity from his fellow theorists, and most particularly, within the general physics community, such as the Pakistan Physics Society.
Nevertheless, in spite of the proliferation controversy and his volatile personality, Khan remained a popular public figure and has been as a symbol of national pride with many in Pakistan who see him as a national hero. While Khan was bestowed with many medals and honors by the federal government and universities in Pakistan, Khan also remains the only citizen of Pakistan to have been honored twice with the Nishan-e-Imtiaz. the highly restricted and prestigious award roughly equivalent to the Presidential Medal of Freedom (United States) and the Order of the British Empire (United Kingdom).
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Khwaja Baha' al-Din Naqshband
Khwaja Baha' al-Din Naqshband (Hazrat Khwaja Baha-ud-Din Naqshband) (Hazrat Khwaja Baha-ud-Din bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad Naqshband) (b. 1318 CC [718 AH], Bukhara, Chagatai Khanate - d. 1389 CC [791 AH], Bukhara, Timurid Empire) was a 14th century Central Asian Sufi saint after whom the Naqshbandi order takes its name. The name Naqshband is sometimes understood in connection with the craft of embroidering, and Hazrat Baha' al-Din is said to have in fact assisted his father in weaving cloaks (kimkha) in Bukhara. More commonly, however, it is taken to refer to the fixing of the divine name of God to the heart by means of dhikr.
To the people of Bukhara, whose patron saint he became, Baha' al-Din was known posthumoulsy as khwadja-yi bala-gardan ("the averter of disaster"), referring to protective powers bestowed on him during his training period. Elsewhere, especially in Turkey, he is popularly called Shahi Naqshband.
In his youth, Baha' al-Din experienced visionary revelations and before the age of 20 was recognized as a brilliant Islamic scholar. He is said to have received training through the spirit (ruhaniyat) of earlier masters of the lineage including Hazrat Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujadawani, the well known khalifa of Hazrat Yusuf al-Hamadani and by Hazrat Khidr (alaihis salam).
Khwaja Baha' al-Din Naqshband was born in 718 AH (1318 CC) at Qasr-i-Arifan, a village in Bukhara, in the Chagatai Khanate. Later on he shifted to Revertun village of Bukhara and spent his life there.
Little is known about his details except some brief hints. Khwaja Baha' al-Din had great regard for the saints of the time. Just three days after his birth, Hazrat Baha' al-Din was taken by his father, Muhammad, to Khwaja Muhammad Babai Sammasi to receive his blessings. Khwaja Muhammad Babai Sammasi had come to Qasr-i-Arifan along with a group of his followers. Khwaja Muhammad Babai Sammasi adopted Baha' al-Din as his son and foretold his followers that ‘this son shall be the leader of the time.’
Baha' al-Din was married at the age of 18 and in those early days he was blessed with remaining in the service of Khwaja Babai Muhammad Sammasi. On the passing of Khwaja Babai Muhammad Sammasi in 755 AH, Baha' al-Din's father took him to Samarkand. In Samarkand, Baha' al-Din obtained blessings from the dervishes.
On reaching maturity, Baha' al-Din entered into the service of Hazrat Amir Kalal, the successor of Babai Sammasi, who trained him in ‘zikr’ -- a form of Islamic meditation in which phrases or prayers are repeatedly chanted in order to remember God.
Baha' al-Din became immersed in prayers and ‘mujahada’ -- the spiritual struggle against his own baser impulses. Hazrat Sayid Amir Kalal left no stone unturned in the education of Baha' al-Din utlizing training and instructions as dictated by his predecessor Murshid Khwaja Muhammad Sammasi.
On completion of his course, Baha' al-Din decided to leave. On account of Baha' al-Din's evident God-given capabilities, Hazrat Sayid Amir Kalal allowed him to leave to try to attain higher spiritual perfection.
Thereafter, Baha' al-Din served Moulana Arif Deg-garai for seven years and twelve years in the service of a Turkistani Murshid Khalil Aata. Baha' al-Din also spent time with scholars where he learned the knowledge of hadith and became acquainted with the biographies of the sahaba -- the Companions of the Prophet.
Baha' al-Din performed the Hajj twice. In one of these travels, the king of Herat, Muiz-ud-Din Husain bin Gayas-ud-Din gave Baha' al-Din a grand reception where he invited the scholars of Herat to inquire of Baha' al-Din concerning issues about tariqat -- the regimen of mystical teaching and spiritual practices with the aim of seeking haqiqa -- the ultimate truth. Baha' al-Din also imparted irfan -- knowledge, awareness and wisdom.
In the second Hajj, Baha' al-Din went to see the famous saint, Hazrat Zain-ud-Din Abu Bakr Taib-Abadi and remained in his company for three days. Hazrat Zain-ud-Din passed away in 791 AH.
Little is known about the family background of Hazrat Khwaja Naqshband, though much has been written on Naqshbandi order. It is known that Hazrat Khwaja Baha' al-Din Muhammad Naqshband left this temporal world on a Monday night of third Rabi-al-Awal, 791 AH (1389 CC). His age was 73 years. He lies buried in his home town Bukhara. This village is now known as Baha-ud-Din.
The character of Hazrat Khwaja Baha' al-Din Naqshband is revealed by the way he lived. Baha' al-Din gave up the world. He had no relationships and adopted a lonely life of abstinence. His pious breaths were devoted to the grace of the dervish and he would tell, with great love, that whatever he had found was found by him with it's original attributes.
In his simple abode, there would be dust in his house in the winter, which would be falling from the mosque. In the summer there would be an old mat. Baha' al-Din would always be careful in self-introspection and would be cautious about his diet. He would often relate Hadith about a pious (halal) diet.
Baha' al-Din was full of the desire for sacrifice and servitude. Whatever gift was brought to him, he would return a similar or better gift, in keeping with the practice of the Prophet. He would entertain his guest with befitting diet and would see that there was no laxity in making him at ease. He would provide his own clothes/coverings to cover the guest in his sleep to make him comfortable. Hazrat Khwaja would grow his paddy/wheat himself from his fields. He would be cautious in the selection of seeds and the selection of oxen with broad horns. Scholars coming in his service would eat from his kitchen, considering it to be a blessing from him. His personality is described to be so impressive that King and Amirs of Herat would remain dumbfounded on seeing him. He would be well dressed and duly scented; social with friends and guests; attending to domestic work himself.
Baha' al-Din would go to inquire about sick people, and would even provide advice regarding their treatment. He would treat the wounds of animals, and would pray for the welfare of faithful. He was a guide for the etiquette ettiquete, and would always preach for a just (hahal) diet and a clean and pious life.
Baha' al-Din attained the fame of a Perfect friend of Allah (Wali). Great scholars, amirs, wazirs,and even kings from far and wide would attend his gatherings to receive his blessings. He would pray for their welfare and also for the abstinence (taqwa) of their hearts. Besides the hard prayers, he would follow in the footsteps of the Prophet in all prayers. He would always perform ablution (Wazoo), be punctual in prayers (Salat) and recitation of Qur'an, seek repentance (Toba-Istigfar); urge remembrance of Allah (Zikir); and observe fasting.
Baha' al-Din classified knowledge in three categories. One is bookish knowledge, which perishes with the death of the writer and the eating of the book by moths. Many such types of knowledge have come and are lost.
The second form of knowledge is that of science. Again this too is not reliable as a theory put forward today is disproved tomorrow. Yesterday we were told that the sun is stationary, today we are told that it is moving. Hence knowledge based on science is not reliable.
The third form of knowledge neither needs books nor scientific verification. It is transferred from person to person and one must think that a person having this type of knowledge has reached it’s climax, when he says that he knows nothing, as this knowledge is so vast that it has no boundaries. Baha' al-Din says that being a student of this knowledge, time and distance is no bar to him, that means he could travel both through time and over distance without means and that is the lowest stage of this knowledge. The highest form of this knowledge (The Miraj) is the ascension performed by the Prophet. The purpose of knowledge should be to take you to the Source of knowledge, which is ALLAH.
In India, the Naqshbandi order was introduced by Hazrat Khwaja Razi-ud-Din Muhammad Baqi known as Khwaja Baqi Billah. It was with his efforts lasting three to four years that a strong foundation of the order was laid in India.
The urs of Hazrat Khwaja Baha-ud-Din Muhammad Naqshband is celebrated on the 3rd Rabi-ul-Awal every year.
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Naqshbandiyya (Naqshbandiyah)) (Naqshbandi). An important and still active Sufi order, named after Khwaja Baha’ al-Din Naqshband (1318-1389) from Bukhara. In the extent of its diffusion it has been second only to the Qadiriyya.
In Transoxiana, it rose to supremacy in the time of its founder, and spread southward to Herat. In northwestern Persia, however, it was relatively short-lived. With their strong loyalty to Sunnism, the Naqshbandis became a special target of persecution for the Shi‘a Safavids. In the nineteenth century, the Khalidi branch of the Naqshbandiyya, established by Mawlana Khalid Baghdadi (d. 1827), almost entirely supplanted all other branches and wrested supremacy from the Qadiriyya in Kurdistan. At present, the Naqshbandiyya remain strong among the Kurds of Persia, particularly in the region of Mahabad, and in Talish. By contrast, they are now moribund among the Turkmen.
In Turkey, the first implantation took place in the fifteenth century. It gained the loyalty of the Ottoman Turks with its emphatically Sunni identity and insistence on sober respect for Islamic law. The Mujaddidi branch of the order, established in India by Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi “the Renewer,” was transmitted to Turkey in the seventeenth century. Soon afterwards, a second transmission took place through Mecca, which remained until the late nineteenth century an important center for the diffusion of the Naqshbandiyya. In Turkey too, it was the Khalidi branch which made the Naqshbandiyya the paramount order, a position it has retained even after the official dissolution of the orders.
Naqshbandiyya was a Sufi order (tariqa) that began in Central Asia. Its legends identify Ahmad Ata Yaswi (d. 1116) as the order’s founder, but the name derives from Khwaja Baha’ al-Din Naqshband (Bahauddin an-Naqshband) (d. 1389). The order arrived in India at a fairly late date. Although the Mughal emperor Babar supposedly invited its adherents to India, Shaikh Baqi Bi’llah (Khwaja Baqi Bi’llah) (1564-1603), who arrived in Delhi during Akbar’s reign, was the first influential Naqshbandi to make his home there. During this period, the spiritual program of the Naqshbandis was not yet solidly established. Baqi Bi’llah’s own son was attracted to the pantheistic views of the Spanish mystic philosopher Ibn Arabi.
Baqi Bi’llah’s favorite disciple, Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624), however, took a much more scripturalist approach, attacking Arabi’s thought and bemoaning the influence of Shi‘ites and Hindus in the royal court, Sirhindi’s emphasis on the Qur’an, shari’a, and the personality of the Prophet as revealed in hadith literature helped to place Indian Naqshbandis at the center of the religious revival that took place in the Muslim world in the century after Sirhindi’s death. Indian Naqshbandis living in the holy cities intiated many Indonesians and Central Asians into the order. The hospice of Mirzah Mazhar Jan-i Janan (d. 1780) was another notable Naqshbandi center. In contrast to the Chishtis, Naqshbandis favored private meditation (particularly intense concentration on the images of one’s master) and rejected the use of music as a spiritual aid.
In India, the Naqshbandiyya remained for two centuries the principal order, especially through the Mujaddid branch. Its main characteristic has been its rejection of innovations and its involvement in political struggles.
Naqshbandiyah see Naqshbandiyya
Naqshbandi see Naqshbandiyya
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Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al- (Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi) (Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi) (Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi) (Algorizm) (c,770-c.840). Mathematician, astronomer and geographer. His name still lies in the term algorithm. His Algebra (in Arabic, al-jabr) was translated partially by Robert of Chester as Liber algebras et almucabola, and shortly afterwards by Gerard of Cremona as De jebra et almucabola. In this way, there was introduced into Europe a science completely unknown until then. Almost at the same time an adaptation of his Arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, which today are “Arabic numerals,” was made known in Spain in a Latin version by John of Seville.
Al-Khwarazmi was born in Khwarizm (Kheva), a town south of the Oxus River in present day Uzbekistan. His parents migrated to a place south of Baghdad when he was a child. The exact date of his birth is not known. It has been established from his contributions that he flourished under Khalifah (Caliph) al-Mamun who reigned from 813 to 833 at Baghdad. Al-Khwarizmi is best known for introducing the mathematical concept algorithm, which is named after him.
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians that ever lived. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. Al-Khwarizmi influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. He is recognized as the founder of algebra, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The name algebra is derived from al-Khwarizmi’s famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. Al-Khwarizmi developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later extrapolated to tangent functions. Al-Khwarizmi also developed the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections.
The influence of al-Khwarizmi on the growth of mathematics, astronomy and geography is well established in history. His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science but also enriched it through his original contributions. He synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. He adopted the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as Algorithm, or Algorizm. In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.
In addition to an important treatise on astronomy, al-Khwarizmi wrote a book on astronomical tables. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early twelfth century by Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. The treatise on arithmetic (Kitab al-Jam‘a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, and the one on algebra (al-Maqala fi Hisab al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah), are known only from Latin translations. It was this later translation which introduced the new mathematics to Europe -- to the West. Until this translation was made, the new math was unknown to Europeans. Al-Khwarizmi’s Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text book of European universities. His astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese.
The contribution of al-Khwarizmi to geography is also outstanding. He not only revised Ptolemy’s views on geography, but also corrected them in detail. Seventy geographers worked under Khwarizimi’s leadership and they produced the first map of the then known world in 830. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by khalifah (Caliph) Mamun al-Rashid that were aimed at measuring the volume and circumference of the earth. His geography book entitled Kitab Surat-al-Ard, including maps, was also translated. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sundials and astrolabes. He also wrote Kitab al-Tarikh and Kitab al-Rukhmat (on sundials). Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died around 840.
Very little is known of the life of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. The name al-Khwarismi means literally “the man from Khwarizm;” the epithet may also, however, be interpreted to indicate the origin of one’s “stock.” The historian al-Tabari asserts that al-Khwarizmi actually came from Qutrubull, a district not far from Baghdad, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Some sources even give his place of birth as Baghdad. Historians do agree that he lived in Baghdad in the early ninth century under the caliphates of al-Ma’mun and al-Mu‘tasim, whose reigns spanned the years from 813 to 842.
In Kitab al-Fihrist (Book of Chronicles -- c. 987), Ibn Abi Yaqub al-Nadim’s entry on al-Khwarizmi reads: al-Khwarizmi. His name was Muhammad ibn Musa and his family origin was from Khwarazm. He was temporarily associated with the Treasury of the “House of Wisdom” of al-Ma’mun. He was one of the leading scholars in astronomy. People both before and after the observations [conducted under al-Ma’mun] used to rely on his first and second zijes [astronomical tables] which were both known by the name Sindhind. His books are (as follows): (1) the Zij, in two [editions], the first and second; (2) the book on sundials; (3) the book on the use of the astrolabe; (4) the book on the construction of the astrolabe; and (5) the [chronicle].
Al-Nadim’s list is, however, incomplete. He mentions only the astronomical studies and omits an algebra, an arithmetic, a study of the quadrivium, and an adaptation of Ptolemy’s geography. Al-Khwarizmi was apparently well-known in Baghdad for his scholarly works on astronomy and mathematics. His inheritance tables on the distribution of money were widely used.
Al-Khwarizmi is credited by early Arab scholars Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) and Katib Celebi (1609-1657) with being the first mathematician to write about algebra. The word “algebra” comes from the second word of the title, Kitab al-jabr wa al-muquabalah. It is his best known work. Literally, the title means “the book of integration and equation.” It contained rules for arithmetical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, for elementary geometry, and for inheritance problems concerning the distribution of wealth according to proportions. The algebra was based on a long tradition originating in Babylonian mathematics of the early second millennium B.C.T. When it was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century, the rules for the distribution of wealth, which had been so popular in the Near East, were omitted. Translated into English from a Latin version in 1915 by Louis Charles Karpinski, the book opens with a pious exhortation which reveals al-Khwarizmi’s belief in an ordered universe. In the same introduction, al-Khwarizmi describes three kinds of numbers, “roots, squares, and numbers.”
The first six chapters of al-Khwarizmi’s algebra deal with the following mathematical relationships: “Concerning roots equal to roots,” “Concerning squares equal to numbers,” “Concerning roots equal to numbers,” “Concerning squares and roots equal to numbers,” “Concerning squares and numbers equal to roots,” and “Concerning roots and numbers equal to a square.” These chapters are followed by illustrative geometrical demonstrations and then many problems with their solutions.Some of his problems are purely formal, whereas others appear in practical contexts. An interesting chapter on mercantile transactions asserts that “mercantile transactions and all things pertaining thereto involve two ideas and four numbers.”
For Muslims, al-Khwarizmis astronomical works are perhaps even more important than his algebra. His astronomical tables were used for accurate timekeeping. In Islam, the times of the five daily prayers are determined by the apparent position of the sun in the sky and vary naturally throughout the year. In al-Khwarizmi’s work on the construction and use of the astrolabe, the times of midday and afternoon prayers are determined by measuring shadow lengths. These timekeeping techniques were widely used for centuries.
Al-Khwarizmi also created tables to compute the local direction of Mecca. This is fundamental to Muslims because it is the direction in which they face when they pray, bury their dead, and perform various ritual acts. It is no wonder that in Islamic texts, al-Khwarizmi is referred to as “the astronomer.”
Al-Khwarizmi’s book on arithmetic has been preserved in only one version. Translated into Latin and published in Rome in 1857 by Prince Baldassare Boncompagni, al-Khwarizmi’s Algoritmi de numero indorum appears as part 1 of a volume entitled Tratti d’aritmetica. The title means “al-Khwarizmi concerning the Hindu art of numbering.” This is the derivation of the word “algorithm.” The arithmetic introduced Arabic numerals and the art of calculating by decimal notation. The only copy of this work is in the Cambridge University library.
Al-Khwarizmi’s study of the quadrivium -- the medieval curriculum of arithmetic, music, astronomy, and geometry -- is entitled Liber y sagogarum Alchorismi in artem astronomican a magistro A. compositus (1126). It was the first of al-Khwarizmi’s writings to appear in Europe. The identity of the writer “A” is not certain, but he is assumed to be the scholar Adelard of Bath, who is known as the translator of al-Khwarizmi’s tables. These trigonometric tables were among the first of the Arabic studies in mathematics to appear in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi enjoyed an excellent reputation among his fellow Arab scholars. Some of his numerical examples were repeated for centuries, becoming so standardized that many subsequent mathematicians did not consider it necessary to acknowledge al-Khwarizmi as the source.
The geography Kitab surat al-ard (Book of the Form of the Earth) differs in several respects from Ptolemy’s geography. Like Ptolemy’s, it is a description of a world map and contains a list of the coordinates of the principal places on it, but al-Khwarizmi’s arrangement is radically different, and it is clear that the map to which it refers is not the same as the map which Ptolemy described. It is supposed that al-Khwarizmi’s world map was the one constructed for al-Ma’mun. This map was an improvement over Ptolemy’s, correcting distortions in the supposed length of the Mediterranean. It was far more accurate, too, in its description of the areas under Islamic rule. Because it contained errors of its own, however, the geography written by al-Khwarizmi failed to replace the Ptolemaic geography used in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi’s importance in the history of mathematics is not debatable. Two notable arithmetic books, Alexander de Villa Dei’s Carmen de Algorismo (twelfth century) and Johannes de Sacrobosco’s Algorismus vulgaris (thirteenth century), owe much to al-Khwarizmi’s arithmetic and were widely used for several hundred years. In the ninth century, Abu Kamil drew on al-Khwarizmi’s works for his own writings on algebra. In turn, Leonardo of Pisa, a thirteenth century scholar, was influenced by Abu Kamil. Numerous commentaries on Abu Kamil’s work kept al-Khwarizmi’s influence alive in the Middle Ages and throughout the Renaissance.
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kharizmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Kharizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al- see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarizmi, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Algorizm see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
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