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‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (646-705). Umayyad caliph from 685 to 705 who succeeded in restoring the unity of the Arabs under Syrian leadership by ending the second fitnah. During his tenure, the administration was centralized; Arabic was substituted for Greek and Persian; and Islamic coinage was issued. Also, during his reign, the ‘Uthmanic text of the Qur’an was re-edited with vowel-punctuation; the postal service was reorganized and expanded; the damaged Ka'ba was repaired; the tradition of weaving a silk cover for the Ka'ba began; and the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem.
'Abd al-Malik was a well-educated man and a capable ruler, despite the many political problems that impeded his rule. During his reign, all important records were translated into Arabic, and for the first time a special currency for the Muslim world was minted, which led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 in Asia Minor and were decisively defeated by 'Abd al-Malik after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. Also, many reforms happened in his time as regards agriculture and commerce.
'Abd al-Malik became caliph after the death of his father Marwan I in 685. Within a few years, he dispatched armies, under al-Hajjaj bin Yousef, on a campaign to reassert Umayyad control over the Islamic empire. Hajjaj first defeated the governor of Basra and then led his forces into Hejaz, where Ibn Zubayr was killed -- ending his short claim to the caliphate. The Siege of Mecca in 692 started with Hajjaj at the head of about 2000 Syrians he set out against 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the caliph of Hejaz at Mecca. Hajjaj advanced unopposed as far as his native Taif, which he took without any fighting and used as a base. The caliph had charged him first to negotiate with 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from punishment if he capitulated. However, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to let the affair result in bloodshed in the Holy City. Since the negotiations failed and al-Hajjaj lost patience, he sent a courier to ask 'Abd al-Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take Mecca by force. He received both, and thereupon bombarded Mecca using catapults from the mountain of Abu Qubays. The bombardment continued during the Pilgrimage or Hajj.
After the siege had lasted for seven months and 10,000 men, among them two sons of 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, had gone over to al-Hajjaj, 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr with a few loyal followers, including his youngest son, were killed in the fighting around the Ka'ba (October 692).
Hajjaj's success led 'Abd al-Malik to assign him the role of governor of Iraq and give him free rein in the territories he controlled. Hajjaj arrived when there were many deserters in Basra and Kufa. He promptly and forcefully impelled them to return to combat. Hajjaj, after years of serious fighting, quelled religious disturbances, including the rebellion launched by Salih ibn Musarrih and continued after Salih's death by Shahib. These rebels repeatedly defeated more numerous forces and at their height entered Kufah. However, 'Abd al-Malik's Syrian reinforcements enabled Hajjaj to turn the tide.
Under Hajjaj, Arab armies put down the revolt of 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath in Iraq from 699 to 701, and also took most of Turkestan. 'Abd al-Rahman rebelled following Hajjaj's repeated orders to push further into the lands of Zundil. After his defeat in Iraq, again achieved through 'Abd al-Malik's dispatch of Syrian reinforcements to Hajjaj, 'Abd al-Rahman returned east. There one city closed its gates to him and in another he was seized. However, Zundil's army arrived and secured his release. Later, 'Abd al-Rahman died and Zundil sent his head to Hajjaj who sent it to 'Abd al-Malik. These victories paved the way for greater expansions under 'Abd al-Malik's son al-Walid.
'Abd al-Malik was effective in increasing the size of the empire. In the Maghreb (western North Africa), in 686, a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qais won the Battle of Mamma over Byzantines and Berbers led Kusayla, on the Qairawan plain, and re-took Ifriqiya and its capital Kairouan.
In 695, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. A Byzantine fleet arrived and retook Carthage. However, in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Tiberios III at the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantines withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta.
Hasan met trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina. They inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702, 'Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced him. With a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated the Zenata in a battle at Tabarka, 85 miles west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705, Musa ibn Nusayr replace Hasan. 'Abd al-Malik pacified much of North Africa, although he failed to take Ceuta.
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‘Abd ar-Rahman I
‘Abd ar-Rahman I (al-Dakhil) ('Abd al-Rahman I) (Abderraman I) ("Falcon of Andalus") ("Falcon of the Quraish") (731-788). First Umayyad emir of Spain and the founder of the Umayyad emirate of Cordoba (r. 756-788). Having narrowly escaped the massacre in 750 of the Umayyads in Damascus, 'Abd ar-Rahman wandered through North Africa until 755. With the backing of Umayyad sympathizers in Spain and Ceuta, 'Abd ar-Rahman then intervened between feuding Muslims in Spain. He disembarked at Almunecar in August 755; entered Seville in 756; and captured Cordoba in 756 where he was recognized as emir of al-Andalus. Until 769, he suppressed rebellions by the Spanish neo-Muslims, the Berbers and the Arabs. A coalition of Arab chiefs sought the aid of the Frankish king, Charlemagne, who in 778 laid siege to Saragossa (Sarakusta) but had to return to the Rhine. ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s realm was not fully pacified until the defeat of Charlemagne’s army at Roncesvalles (Roncevaux) in 778. This is the famous battle associated with the memory of Roland. In 780, ‘Abd ar-Rahman subdued the Basques, and occupied Saragossa for a short time.
'Abd ar-Rahman I was the grandson of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik, the tenth Umayyad Caliph. He was a prince and was groomed from an early age to be a caliph. More specifically, he was the son of Mu'awiyah, son of Hisham, grandson of 'Abd al-Malik. The child-prince was said to be tall and slender. His mother was a Christian Berber slave, and from her he inherited red hair.
'Abd ar-Rahman was about eighteen when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by a popular revolt known as the 'Abbasid Revolution, occurring in the year 749. 'Abd ar-Rahman and a small selection of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been. After barely escaping Syria with their lives, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his former Greek slave Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai and into Egypt. It would take several years 'Abd ar-Rahman to slowly make his way into the west. In 755, 'Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. He then dispatched Bedr to Iberia with a message in which he proclaimed himself the rightful Umayyad heir to the land of al-Andalus.
At the invitation of loyal Umayyad followers, 'Abd ar-Rahman was told to go to al-Andalus. 'Abd ar-Rahman landed at Almunecar to the east of Malaga in August of 755. 'Abd ar-Rahman was greeted by local chieftains upon landing in al-Andalus. During his brief time in Malaga, 'Abd ar-Rahman quickly amassed local support. Waves of people made their way to Malaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians.
While the ruler of al-Andalus, al-Fihri, and the commander of his army, al-Sumayl, pondered what to do about the arrival of 'Abd ar-Rahman and the threat he posed to their power, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Sarakusta (Zaragoza), an important trade city on al-Andalus' Upper March made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to squash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for 'Abd ar-Rahman, as he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March of 756, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his growing following were able to take Sevilla without violence. After putting down the rebellion in Sarakusta, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face 'Abd ar-Rahman. The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Cordova on the plains of Musarah.
Both armies lined on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. 'Abd ar-Rahman had no banner, so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. 'Abd ar-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight, 'Abd ar-Rahman obtained a complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy. 'Abd ar-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Cordova.
'Abd ar-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of 'Abd ar-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Cordova itself! However, 'Abd ar-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition. As he always dealt severely with dissidence in al-Andalus.
Sarakusta (Saragossa) proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only 'Abd ar-Rahman, but also, his predecessors as well.
In the year 777-778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Saragossa, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. Charlemagne's army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Saragossa against the Umayyad emir in Cordoba. Essentially, Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. However, after Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Saragossa, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees named Roncesvalles (Roncevaux), where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels. This disaster was noted in the epic Chanson de Roland.
During his reign, 'Abd ar-Rahman strove to improve the infrastructure of al-Andalus. He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Cordova. Construction on the mosque was started around the year 786. It would in time become world famous and deemed a major holy site for many Muslims, later to be known as the Mezquita de Cordoba. 'Abd ar-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. 'Abd ar-Rahman felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army. He, therefore, bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. 'Abd ar-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians to retain and practice their faiths. They did, however, have to pay a tribute tax for this privilege. 'Abd ar-Rahman's policy of taxing non-Muslims, which was often carried out by later rulers, changed the religious dynamic of al-Andalus. Possibly because of excessive tribute taxes, the bulk of the country's population soon became Muslim.
Around 788, 'Abd ar-Rahman died in his adopted city of Cordova. He was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. 'Abd ar-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. 'Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of 'Abd ar-Rahman III.
Dakhil, al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Rahman I, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of Andalus see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of the Quraish see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
'Abd al-Rahman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Abderraman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
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‘Abd ar-Rahman II
‘Abd ar-Rahman II (b. 792, Toledo - d. 852, Cordoba). The fourth Umayyad Emir of Cordoba (r. 822-852) in Al-Andalus Iberia. He dealt with the revolt of Mozarab Christians of Toledo and Cordoba and with the raiding Northmen -- the Vikings. He was a builder and patron of letters and arts.
The son of Emir al-Hakam I, 'Abd ar-Rahman II was born in Toledo. In his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch" when at least 700 people who had come to pay homage to the princes were killed by order of Al-Hakam.
In 839 or 840, 'Abd ar-Rahman sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids.
In 844, 'Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. In response to the Viking menace, 'Abd ar-Rahman constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He may have sent al-Ghazal on a second embassy to the Vikings in Ireland after this.
He responded to William of Septimania's requests for assistance in William's struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.
'Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of the "Martyrs of Cordoba".
'Abd ar-Rahman is also best remembered for his patronage of the great composer and cultural innovator, Ziryab.
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‘Abduh, Muhammad (Muhammad 'Abduh) (Muhammed 'Abduh) (1849 - July 11, 1905). Egyptian scholar and reformer who is regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism. The birth year of Muhammad ‘Abduh coincided with the death of Muhammad ‘Ali, the Albanian adventurer and creator of modern Egypt. ‘Ali’s regime, in political terms, generated the issues of modern change associated in intellectual terms with ‘Abduh’s pioneer leadership as a journalist, theologian, jurist and – in the last six years of his life – grand mufti of Egypt. The initial factors in his career were his traditional studies at al-Azhar University and an early commitment to Sufism with the Shadhili order of mystical discipline and the practice of dhikr and ta‘widh. His university studies ensured not only his grounding in the skills of an ‘alim but also his awareness of the inhibitions of taqlid (adherence to tradition), against which his reforming energies were later directed. Although he intellectually renounced his Sufi background, it continued to impart a quality of piety to his academic concerns for liberation from the harmful effects of taqlid.
The crucial influence in his development was the impact of Jalal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897), a strenuous advocate of a unitary Islam who emphasized the concept of umma (community) against the regionalism that in the twentieth century of the Christian calendar was to break up allegiance to the Ottoman empire into nationalism and the nation state. Pan-Islam was al-Afghani’s response to British rule in Egypt and to European domination in general. ‘Abduh was drawn into the cause and became editor of the journal Al-‘urwah al-wuthqa (“Firm Handhold” or "The Firmest Bond"), which took its title from a Qur’anic phrase (Suras 2:256 and 31:22). Despite the brevity of its publication in the 1880s, the journal kindled the enthusiasm of a generation of writers, including Rashid Rida, ultimately ‘Abduh’s biographer and his chief literary legatee.
‘Abduh was exiled from Egypt between 1882 and 1888, when he made wide contact with kindred minds in Syria and North Africa, with a short sojourn also in France. After his return to Cairo, his thoughts and efforts were drawn increasingly toward education and a renewal of Islamic theology. Given the ambiguities implicit in Arab Ottomanism and the actualities of British power in Egypt, he sensed that political activism had to be accompanied, if not overtaken, by the invigoration of the Muslim mind. Western influences had taken hold ever since Napoleon’s intrusion into the Arab East, but largely in practical forms – arms, trade, travel, and finance. A response to modernity had to be made in the way Islam perceived itself. ‘Abduh’s training in the familiar scholastic patterns of tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis or commentary) and fiqh (jurisprudence) had made him aware of the impediment to critical self-awareness in those habits and attitudes. The zest he had acquired from al-Afghani he now harnessed to intellectual ends. The attitude and training of the ‘ulama’, as he saw them, had entrenched them in the citation of authority, the appeal to sacrosanct exegesis, and a supine satisfaction with static norms. This taqlid, or “hideboundness” (to adopt a harsh translation), had its origins in the bases of Islam’s concept of wahy (“revelation”) in the Qur’an and in the assumption of isnad (“reliance”) on which its handling of tradition had long relied. Once an instinct of loyalty to the past and as such characteristic of Muslim scholarship, taqlid had come to sap the genuine articulation of Islam’s meaning and quality.
To achieve emancipation from the mentality of taqlid and yet retain Islamic authenticity was therefore a formidable task. ‘Abduh shouldered it with admirable tenacity, patience, and resilience, corroborating his scholarly credentials by earning increasing personal stature, despite the toll on his health and resources caused by pressure from reactionary forces. The idea that the shari‘a could be subject to wise discretion and that even theology could be flexible within limits served to enliven theological education, to increase student initiative, and to give scope to existing ideas of istihsan and istislah (considerations of equity through appeal to well-being and good sense).
The main ground of ‘Abduh’s “liberal-loyal” equation was the conviction that revelation and reason, each rightly perceived, were inherently harmonious. In Risalat al-tawhid ("The Theology of Unity" or "On Monotheism"), his most popular work, ‘Abduh expounded his conviction that “every sound speculation led to a belief in God as He is described in the Qur’an.” ‘Abduh held that the premise on which this belief rested was such as to make proof unnecessary. There were things about which it was not permissable to inquire, where curiosity could lead only to “confusion of belief.” Nevertheless, what was given in revelation should be rationally possessed – a task incumbent on every generation. There was no need to raise questions of theodicy, but sound exegesis should avoid crudely reading into the Qur’an anticipations of new discoveries and inventions. The purpose of revelation was essentially religious. What reason as science could achieve on its own, God had left it to do, and faith must respect its methods. ‘Abduh sustained the traditional case for the ‘ijaz (matchlessness) of the Qur’an as conclusive evidence of its divine origin. He identified as a form of shirk (“associationalism,” or more broadly “not letting God be God”) any reluctance to apply rationality to issues of society or to refuse its scientific fruits. Such reluctance would be a disavowal of divine creation. Shari‘a law was to be interpreted by the same principle of divinely created status and human custody in harmony.
At the time of his death, ‘Abduh was in his middle fifties. The bitter opposition he suffered from both academic and legal foes was proof of the measure of his influence and the range of his vision for a renewed Islam. His ideas found some continuing expression through the pages of the influential journal Al-manar (“Lighthouse”), but his disciples lacked his stature, and there is evidence of an adverse reaction to his legacy soon after his demise. From a historical perspective, however, he came to epitomize an incipient modernism, opening up a fresh viewpoint yet leaving many issues unresolved.
He died on July 11, 1905 in Alexandria, Egypt.
Muhammad ‘Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Muhammed 'Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Architect of Islamic Modernism see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
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Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr (Abu Bakr al-Siddiq) (Abu Bakr as-Siddiq) ('Abdallah bin Abu Quhafah) (c. 573 - August 23, 634). The first Caliph -- the first political successor to Muhammad -- and the father of Muhammad’s wife, ‘A’isha. Abu Bakr is said to have been three years younger than Muhammad, but little is known of his life before his conversion to Islam.
Abu Bakr was born at Mecca some time in the year 573, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe. Abu Bakr's father's name was Uthman Abu Qahafa (Uthman Abu Quhafah) nicknamed Abu Qahafa, and his mother was Salma Umm-ul-Khair nicknamed Umm-ul-Khair. The birth name of Abu Bakr was Abdul Kaaba ("servant of the Kaaba) and when he accepted Islam in 610 he was named Abdullah (servant of Allah) by Muhammad.
By most reports Abu Bakr was very handsome. For his beauty, he earned the nickname of Atiq. He was born into a wealthy family. He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time among the Bedouins who called themselves Ahl-i-Ba'eer -- the people of the camel. Thereafter, he developed a particular fondness for camels.
In his early years, Abu Bakr played with the camel foals and goats. His love for camels earned him the nickname of Abu Bakr, the "father of the foal of the camel". It is said that Abu Bakr did not worship idols even during his youth. When he was ten years old he went to Syria along with his father with the merchants' caravan. Muhammad who was 12 years old at the time, was also with the caravan. Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, he was literate and developed a fondness for poetry. He used to attend the annual fair at Ukaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory. In 591, at the age of 18, Abu Bakr went into trade and adopted the profession of a cloth merchant which was the family's business. In the coming years, Abu Bakr traveled extensively with caravans. Business trips took him to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. These travels brought him wealth and added to his experience. His business flourished and he rose in the scale of social importance. Though his father Uthman Abu Qahafa was still alive, Abu Bakr came to recognized as chief of his tribe. He was assigned the office of awarding blood money in cases of murder and his office was something like the office of an honorary magistrate. Abu Bakr was an expert in genealogical lore and he knew intimately who was who in Mecca, and what his ancestry was.
When Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid and moved to her house, he became a neighbor of Abu Bakr who lived in the same locality. That was the quarter of Meccan aristocracy. Like the house of Khadija, the house of Abu Bakr was double storied and palatial in structure.
As neighbors, Muhammad and Abu Bakr came in contact with each other. Both of them were of the same age, traders and good managers.
On his return from a business trip from Yemen, Abu Bakr was informed by some of his friends that in his absence Muhammad had declared himself as the Messenger of God, and proclaimed a new religion. Abu Bakr converted to Islam becoming the second person to accept Muhammad's Prophethood according to some Sunnis. Other Sunnis and all Shi'as believe that the second person (and first male) to accept Muhammad as the messenger of Allah was 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. However, what is not disputed is that Abu Bakr was the first person outside the family of Muhammad to become a Muslim.
Abu Bakr's birthname, "Abdul Kaaba," was changed to "Abdullah," because the former was indicative of paganism. His wife Qutaylah bint 'Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and Abu Bakr divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim at his insistence. All his children except 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr separated from his son Abdur Rahman.
Abu Bakr's dawah brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert to Islam. He presented Islam to others in such a way that many of his friends opted for Islam. Among those who converted to Islam at the instance of Abu Bakr were Uthman ibn Affan (who would become the third caliph), Al-Zubayr, Talhah, Abdur Rahman bin Awf (who became an important part of the Rashidun Empire), Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Umar ibn Masoan, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (who became commander in chief of the Rashidun army in Syria), Abdullah ibn Abdul Asad, Abu Salma, Khalid ibn Sa'id, and Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah.
Abu Bakr's acceptance of Islam proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves, however, there was no such protection, and were subjected to persecution. Abu Bakr felt for these slaves, so he purchased them and set them free. Abu Bakr purchased the freedom of eight slaves, four men and four women. The men were Bilal ibn Ribah, Abu Fakih, Ammar ibn Yasir and Abu Fuhayra. The women were Lubaynah, Al-Nahdiah, Umm Ubays, and Harithah bint al-Muammil.
Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men. The father of Abu Bakr asked him why he did not liberate strong and young slaves who could then be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of Allah, and not for his own sake.
For three years after the advent of Islam, Muslims kept secret their faith, and prayed in secret. In 613, Muhammad received a revelation to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury, the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr, and beat him mercilessly until he lost consciousness. Following this incident Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh.
In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were shut up in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distress, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. With this assurance, Abu Bakr went back to Mecca. It was a relief for him to be there. However, soon, due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr. In the year 620, Muhammad's wife and uncle died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aishawas engaged to Muhammad, however, it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later.
Also, in the year 620, Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (Night Journey). According to Sunni traditions, Abu Bakr was given the title "al-Siddiq", meaning "the truthful," "the upright," or "the one who counts true," due to his immediate belief of the journey. During the Roman-Persian Wars, the sympathies of the Qurays of Mecca was with the Persians who were Zoroastrian. The Muslims on the other hand had their sympathies for the Byzantines who were Christians and were the People of the Book with a belief in the Abrahamic God. After the Persian victories over Byzantium, verses of the Qur'an revealed in Surah rum the prophesy that Byzantium (Romans) would regain what they lost and the Persians woule be defeated within a few years. Over this Abu Bakr made a wager with Ubaiy bin Khalf. It was agreed that the one who lost the wager would pay one hundred camels. With a decisive Byzantium victory in 627 against the Persians, Abu Bakr won the wager. Although Ubaiy bin Khalf was not alive, his heirs honored the agreement and gave Abu Bakr one hundred camels. Abu Bakr then gave the camels away as charity.
In 622, upon the invasin of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad in his migration for Medina. Due to the danger of the Quraysh, they did not take the road to Medina. They moved in the opposite direction, and took refuge in a cave in Mount Thaur some five miles south of Mecca. 'Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr would listen to the plans and talks of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to sight them. After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceeded to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina.
In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. Muslims constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site and Abu Bakr also took part in construction. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with his brother-in-Islam was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah.
Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari used to live at Sukh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina he bought another house near Muhammad's.
The climate of Mecca was dry, but the climate of Medina was damp and this adversely affected the health of the immigrants, so that on arrival most of them fell sick. Abu Bakr also suffered from fever for several days and during this time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. At Mecca, Abu Bakr was a trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He was a wholesaler, and had his store at Sukh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished at Medina. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already engaged to Muhammad, was given to Muhammad in a simple marriage ceremony, and this further strengthened the relationship between Abu Bakr and Muhammad.
In 624, Abu Bakr participated in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca known as the Battle of Badr. In 625, he participated in the Battle of Uhud. Before the battle began, Abu Bakr's son 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr who was still non-Muslim and was fighting on the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. His son later converted to Islam and gained fame during the Muslim conquest of Syria as a fierce warrior. In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid's cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat. Many Muslim warriors were routed from the battle field but Abu Bakr remained, guarding Muhammad from the attacks of the Quraysh soldiers. During one such attack, two disks from Muhammad's shield penetrated into Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these disks but Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. Subsequently, Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety. Later in the year, Abu Bakr was a part of campaign again the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir.
In 627, Abu Bakr participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Banu Qurayza. In 628, he participated in the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact. Also, in 628, he was a part of the Muslim campaign to Khaybar. In 629, Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal from where he called for reinforcements and Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah. Commanding an army under him were Abu Bakr and Umar and they attacked and defeated the enemy.
In 630, when Muslim armies completed the conquest of Mecca, Abu Bakr was a part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca, his father Uthman Abu Qabafa converted to Islam. In 630, he was part of the Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. He was part of the Muslim army in the campaign of Tabuk under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given all his wealth for the preparation of this expedition.
In 631, Muhammad dispatched from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way. Abu Bakr was appointed as the leader of the delegates. Abu Bakr had thus the honor of being the first Amir-ul-Haj in the history of Islam. In the year 632, Abu Bakr followed Muhammad to Mecca for the farewell Hajj.
Abu Bakr was apparently a merchant of modest means and an expert in Arab genealogy. An early convert to Islam (in some traditions the first outside of Muhammad’s immediate family), Abu Bakr was a staunch supporter of Muhammad. When Muhammad reported the Night Journey, Abu Bakr was one of the few to believe immediately, thus earning the title “al-Siddiq” – “The Witnesser to the Truth.”
Abu Bakr was chosen by Muhammad to accompany him on the Hijra, a position of honor and danger. In Medina, Abu Bakr was immediately considered as one of the leaders in the emigrant community. His position became probably stronger when he gave his six year old daughter ‘A’isha to Muhammad for marriage (although the marriage was not consummated until four years later). His position was also improved or at least confirmed by his active participation in successful military campaigns. Abu Bakr soon became Muhammad’s chief adviser.
As Muhammad’s primary adviser, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad on most of the major military expeditions, but did not have a separate military command. He was designated to lead the pilgrimage -- the Hajj -- in the ninth year after Hijra and led the public prayer during Muhammad’s last illness.
Sunni hadith indicate that Muhammad appointed Abu Bakr to become his deputy, so that Abu Bakr became the de facto leader of the Muslim community after Muhammad’s death. The Shi‘a believe that it was 'Ali that had been appointed by Muhammad.
Abu Bakr’s short two year caliphate (June 8, 632 - August 23, 634) was spent in the Islamicization of Arabia and starting the Wars of Conquest. It was Abu Bakr who suppressed tribal revolts during the “apostasy” -- the ridda -- and began Muslim conquests outside the Arabian Peninsula in Iraq and Syria.
Sunni hadith depict Abu Bakr in a positive light, as pious and successful on the battlefield. Abu Bakr stayed in power for only two years until his death in 634. He ruled from his quarters in Medina. The principal challenges to Abu Bakr came from Arab tribes that had given allegiance to Muhammad, but recanted after Muhammad’s death. Abu Bakr had to bring them back into the Muslim federation. By 633, Abu Bakr’s troops had full control over central Arabia.
Abu Bakr died in 634. He was buried next to Muhammad. Abu Bakr’s simple, pious life became legendary among practitioners of the Muslim faith.
Depending on the group of Muslims, Abu Bakr is regarded very differently. Some, like the Naqshibandis, regard him as a central religious personage, and a spiritual authority. Others, like the Sunnis consider Abu Bakr affectionately as being the first Muslim leader after Muhammad passed away. On the other hand, the Shi‘a object generally to any caliph except 'Ali, but Abu Bakr is one of those they tolerate most. Nevertheless, the Shi'a still consider him to be a symbol of profound injustice, that his rule was a human one and not divinely guided, and therefore, illegitimate and tyrannical.
However, what historically cannot be denied is that Abu Bakr took the first steps to make Islam the global religion it has become. He initiated the first conquests -- conquests which within one century were to make the Muslim Empire, the mightiest power in the world.
Siddiq, al- see Abu Bakr
The Witnesser to the Truth see Abu Bakr
'Abdallah bin Abu Quhafah see Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr as-Siddiq see Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq see Abu Bakr
Abdul Kaaba see Abu Bakr
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Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man (al-Imam al-A'zam) ("The Greatest Imam") (Nu'man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan) (c. 699-767). A theologian and religious lawyer. He is the eponym -- the person for whom something is named -- of the school of the Hanafites, one of the four orthodox schools (madhhab) of Islamic jurisprudence. His grandfather is said to have been taken prisoner in Kabul and transported to Kufa, an early Arab town on the Euphrates River in present day Iraq, where Abu Hanifa was born. He studied at Kufa and gradually gained influence as an authority on legal questions, founding a rationalist school which was named after him. Afghanistan adheres to the Hanafite interpretation of Islamic law which has the largest in number of adherents; is the most liberal of the four schools; and permits a certain amount of personal reasoning and free judgment in arriving at legal decisions.
Abu Hanifa was born in Kufa during the reign of the powerful Umayyad caliph 'Abdul Malik bin Marwan. Acclaimed as al-Imam al-A'zam, or al-A'dham (the Great Imam), Nu'man bin Thabit Zuta bin Mah was better known by his kunya Abu Hanifa. It was not a true kunya, as he did not have a son called Hanifa, but an epithetical one meaning pure in monotheistic belief. His father, Thabit bin Zuta, a trader from Kabul, part of Khorasan in Persia (the capital of modern day Afghanistan), was 40 years old at the time of Abu Hanifa's birth.
Abu Hanifa's ancestry is generally accepted as being of non-Arab origin as suggested by the etymology of the names of his grandfather (Zuta) and great-grandfather (Mah). The historian, al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, records a statement from Abu Hanifa's grandson, Ismail bin Hammad, who gave Abu Hanifa's lineage as Thabit bin Numan bin Marzban and claiming to be of Persian origin. The discrepancy in the names, as given by Ismail of Abu Hanifa's grandfather and great-grandfather are thought to be due to Zuta's adoption of a Muslim name (Numan) upon his acceptance of Islam and that Mah and Marzban were titles or official designations in Persia. Further differences of opinion exist on his ancestry. Abu Muti, for example, describes Abu Hanifa as an Arab citing his ancestry as Numan bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Yahya bin Zaid bin Asad. The widely accepted opinion, however, is that he was of Persian ancestry.
Abu Hanifa grew up in a period of oppression during the caliphates of Abdul Malik bin Marwan and his son Walid bin Abdul Malik. The governorship of Iraq was under the control of Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, a loyal follower of Abdul Malik. During his governorship, leaders in religion and learning were especially targeted by Hajjaj as they were proving to be an obstacle to Abdul Malik's establishment of his rule across Arabia and Iraq. Consequently, Abu Hanifa had no interest nor the opportunity to acquire any education in his early childhood. He was simply content with following in the footsteps of his ancestors as a businessman.
Abu Hanifa set up a silk weaving business where he showed scrupulous honesty and fairness. Once his agent in another country, sold some silk cloth on his behalf but forgot to point out a slight defect to the purchasers. When Abu Hanifa learned this, he was greatly distressed as he had no means of refunding their money. He immediately ordered the entire proceeds of the sale of the consignment of silk to be distributed to the poor.
Following the deaths of Hajjaj in 95 A.H. and Walid in 96 A.H., justice and good administration began to make a comeback with the caliphates of Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik and thereafter Umar bin Abdul Aziz. Umar encouraged education to such an extent that every home became a madrasa. Abu Hanifa also began to take an interest in education which was heightened further by the unexpected advice of as-Sha'bi (d. 722), one of Kufa's most well-known scholars.
While running an errand for his mother, he happened to pass the home of as-Sha'bi. Sha'bi, mistaking him for a student, asked him whose classes he attended. When Abu Hanifa responded that he did not attend any classes, Sha'bi said, "I see signs of intelligence in you. You should sit in the company of learned men." Taking Sha'bi's advice, Abu Hanifa embarked on a prolific quest for knowledge that would in due course have a profound impact on the history of Islam. His early education was achieved through madrasas and it is here that he learned the Qur'an and Hadith, doing exceptionally well in his studies. He spent a great deal of time in the tutelage of Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman, a great jurist of Kufa.
Abu Hanifa was one of the distinguished students of Ja'far al-Sadiq, as has been confirmed by Ibn Hajar al Makki in his Sawaiq al Muhriqa, Allamah Shiblinji in his Nur al Absar, Abdul Haleem Jindi and Mohaqiq Abu Zohra and various other Muhadatheen and Ulema have clarified that Abu Hanifa was a student of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Abu Hanifa's initial chain of knowledge was with Imam Baqar and he subsequently expanded this chain of knowledge with Ja'far al-Sadiq.
Abu Hanifa was born 67 years after the death of Muhammad, but during the time of the companions of Muhammad, some of whom lived on until Abu Hanifa's youth. Anas bin Malik, Muhammad's personal attendant, died in 712 and another companion, Abu Tufayl Amir bin Wathilah, died in 719, when Abu Hanifa was 20 years old. No evidence exists, however, to indicate Abu Hanifa had narrated any hadith from the companions although there is no doubt that he was a "tabi'i" (one who had met a companion of Muhammad) and had met Anas bin Malik.
It is perceived this is due to the strict age requirements for learning the discipline of hadith that existed at the time of Kufa where no one below the age of 20 was admitted to a hadith school. The scholars of the time felt that anyone below the age of 20 would not have attained the maturity required to be able to understand the meaning of the narrations.
In 763, al-Mansur, the 'Abbasid monarch offered Abu Hanifa the post of Chief Judge of the State, but he declined to accept the offer, choosing to remain independent. His student Abu Yusuf was appointed Qadi al-Qadat (Chief Judge of the State) of al-Mansur regime instead of himself.
In his reply to al-Mansur, Abu Hanifa excused himself by saying that he did not regard himself fit for the post. Al-Mansur, who had his own ideas and reasons for offering the post, lost his temper and accused Abu Hanifa of lying.
"If I am lying," Abu Hanifa said, "then my statement is doubly correct. How can you appoint a liar to the exalted post of a Chief Qadi (Judge)?"
Incensed by this reply, al-Mansur had Abu Hanifa arrested and put in prison where he was tortured. Even there, the indomitable jurist continued to teach those who were permitted to come to him.
In 767, Abu Hanifa died in prison. It was said that so many people attended his funeral that the funeral service was repeated six times for more than 50,000 people who had amassed before he was actually buried.
Nu'man, Abu Hanifa al- see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Hanifa, Abu see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Imam al-A'zam, al- see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
"The Greatest Imam" see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Nu'man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Abu Hurayra (Abu Hurairah) ('Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr al-Azdi) (Abu Horaira) (603-681). Companion of the Prophet and a well-known transmitter of hadith (traditions).
Abu Hurayra was born in Baha, Yemen, into the Banu Daws tribe from the region of Tihamah on the coast of the Red Sea. He was a child with only a mother and no other known relatives. His name at birth was Abd al-Shams ("servant of the sun"). However, as a child, he had a cat and became known as "Abu Hurayra" (which literally means "Father of the Kitten"). As a young man, he worked for Bushra bint Ghazwan.
Abu Hurayra embraced Islam through Tufayl ibn Amr the chieftain of his tribe. Tufayl had returned to his village after meeting Muhammad and becoming a Muslim in the early years of his mission. Abu Hurayra was one of the first to respond to his call, unlike the majority of Tufayl's tribesmen.
Abu Hurayra accompanied Tufayl to Mecca to meet Muhammad who, according to Sunni tradition, renamed him 'Abd al-Rahman (servant of the Merciful, one of the 99 names of God). Hurayra then returned to his tribe for several years.
In 629, Abu Hurayra went to Medina with some others from his tribe. Since Muhammad was absent due to the Battle of Khaybar, Abu Hurayra stayed in the masjid. At the time, Abu Hurayra was single without a wife or child. His mother, who was still a polytheist, was with him. He prayed for her to become a Muslim, but she refused. Sunni sources report that one day, Abu Hurayra again invited his mother to believe in the One God and His Prophet. She answered with some bad words about the Prophet. Abu Hurayra went to the Prophet with tears in his eyes. "Why are you crying, Abu Hurayra?" asked the Prophet. "I always invite my mother to Islam, and she always refuses," said Abu Hurayra. "I asked her again today. But she said some things about you that made me sad. Can you pray to God for her to turn to Islam?" The Prophet prayed for Abu Hurayra's mother to accept Islam. When Abu Hurayra went home, he found the door closed. He heard the splashing of water. He tried to enter the house, but his mother said, "Wait a minute. Don't come in yet." Then she got dressed and said, "You can come in now." When Abu Hurayra went inside, his mother said, "I declare that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger." Abu Hurayra again went to the Prophet crying. However, this time his tears were tears of joy. "I have good news, Rasul Allah," he said. "God has answered your prayer and guided my mother to Islam."
Abu Hurayra died in 681 at the age of 78. Of the hadith held as authentic by the majority of Sunnis, Abu Hurayra is the most quoted person. Next to him comes the names of such companions as Abdullah ibn Umar, Anas ibn Malik, Aisha, Jabir ibn Abdullah and Abu Said al-Khudri all of whom transmitted over a thousand sayings of Muhammad.
A majority of Sunni scholars consider Abu Hurayra to be one of the major narrators of hadith, and like all of the sahaba (companions), trustworthy. On the other hand, Shi'a tradition almost always rejects the authenticity of Abu Hurayra's hadith, accepting his hadith only when there are similar hadith narrated by sahaba that the Shi'a deem to be reliable. The Shi'a consider Abu Hurayra to be an enemy of 'Ali due to his having found favor with Mu'awiya.
Today, Abu Hurayra is consider one of the most important narrators of hadith in Islam. He was very close to the Prophet. Accordingly, he is considered the most revered companion of Holy Prophet. Although Shi'as criticize Abu Hurayra, this criticism is subjective. Ultimately, the role played by Abu Hurayra in the early days of Islam simply cannot be ignored.
Hurayra, Abu see Abu Hurayra
Abu Hurairah see Abu Hurayra
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr al-Azdi see Abu Hurayra
Abu Horaira see Abu Hurayra
Afghani, Jamal al-Din al- (Sayyid Jamaluddin Afghani) (Sayyid Muhammad ibn Safdar al-Husayn) (Sayyid Jamal-al-din Asadabadi) (1838 - March 9, 1897). Muslim reformer, apologist, and anti-colonialist who is known as the “Father of the Pan-Islamic Movement.”
Afghani was born near Hamadan and educated in Iran and the Shi‘ite shrine cities of Ottoman Iraq. Educated in rationalist philosophy, taught more in Iran than elsewhere in the Muslim world, Afghani was also influenced by the philosophically oriented and innovative Shaikhi school of Shi‘ism. Around 1857, he went to India, where he seems to have acquired his lifelong hatred of British imperialism. After a trip, probably via Mecca and Iraq, he went to Afghanistan and entered the counsels of the Afghan emir, advising him to fight the British. When his patron was defeated by Amir Shir Ali, the latter expelled Afghani.
Afghani went briefly to India and Cairo, and then to Istanbul, where he became a friend of the head of the Dar al-Fonun, a new university. In 1870, Afghani gave a lecture at the university. He compared philosophy to prophecy and implied that prophecy was a craft, thus giving the Ottoman ulama (religious scholars), already hostile to the secular university, an excuse to attack the university and bring on Afghani’s expulsion.
Afghani stayed then in Cairo from 1871 to 1879. There he did his most fruitful work. He was given a stipend by the Egyptian government to teach young Egyptians. Among his disciples was the later great Muslim reformer Muhammad Abduh. From 1875 onwards, Afghani entered politics by (1) leading an Arab Masonic lodge, which he tried to use to achieve the abdication of Isma‘il in favor of his son Tawfiq, (2) promoting the formation of political newspapers by his disciples, and (3) giving effective mass orations, directed especially against Westerners in Egypt. When Tawfiq took power with Franco-British aid in 1879 and Afghani continued to attack the British, he was exiled to India in August 1879.
In India, Afghani went to the Muslim principality of Hyderabad, where he published several Persian articles and his one treatise, known as the Refutation of the Materialists, which was aimed mainly at the pro-British Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his school. After detention by the British in Calcutta, Afghani left for Paris, stopping in London. In London and Paris, Afghani wrote articles against the British occupation of Egypt, and also wrote the irreligious French “Answer to Renan,”a notable defense of Islam against Ernest Renan. He got Abduh to join him in Paris, where they published the reformist and anti-British paper, Al-urwa al-wuthqa, in 1884. It was at this time that Afghani first expressed the pan-Islamic views most often associated with him. Until then, he had spoken rather in terms of regional nationalisms.
In 1886, Afghani sailed to the Iranian port of Bushehr, where his books and papers had been sent from Egypt. He planned to go to Russia, where the Slavophile editor Mikhail Katkov had invited him, but the Iranian minister of press invited him to Tehran. Jamal al-Din stayed with the wealthy Amin al-Zarb. His anti-foreign talk evidently disturbed the shah, who asked Amin al-Zarb to take Afghani with him to Russia, which he did. There he made futile attempts to convince Russia to fight Britain. Afghani overtook the shah’s party in Munich in 1889, and after a brief return to Russia he came back to Iran, where the prime minister refused to see him. Afghani then began to encourage secret organization and leaflets against the government, and forestalled expulsion by taking sanctuary at a shrine. In January 1891, he was expelled from Iran after a leaflet attacked the government for its concessions (especially the tobacco concession) to foreigners. When the Qajar Shah (Nasir al-Din) had Afghani forcibly removed from a place near Tehran which had been regarded as an inviolable sanctuary (in Persian, bast) Afghani developed feelings of hatred and a desire for vengeance towards the shah.
Afghani went to Iraq, and when the Tobacco Rebellion broke out in Iran, a mujtahid expelled from Shiraz visited Afghani, who wrote a letter against the shah and the tobacco concession to the leading mujtahid, Mirza Hasan Shirazi, who was important in the concession’s cancellation.
Frequently opposed by the ulama (the Muslim clergy) and suspected as dissident by the temporal powers, Afghani was often on the run. In 1891 and 1892, Afghani spent months speaking and writing in England with Malkom Khan. In 1892, Afghani was invited to be the guest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid in Istanbul. In Istanbul, Afghani was employed by Sultan Abdulhamid (‘Abd al-Hamid II) to promulgate pan-Islamic ideals. There he worked with a group of Iranians and Shi‘ites to get Shi‘ites to recognize Abdulhamid’s claim to be caliph of all Muslims.
In 1896, Afghani’s disciple, Mirza Riza Kirmani, visited Afghani. Afghani inspired Mirza to kill Nasir al-Din Shah on May 1, 1896. The friendship between Afghani and the Sultan subsequently cooled, essentially because of Afghani’s complicity in the assassination of the Persian ruler. Indeed, Afghani was placed under house arrest by the Sultan. Iran’s futile efforts to extradite Afghani ended with Afghani’s death in 1897.
Afghani died on March 9, 1897 in Istanbul and was buried there. However, in late 1944, at the request of the Afghan government, his remains were taken to Afghanistan and laid to rest in Kabul inside the Kabul University where a mausoleum was erected for him.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was most effective as a pamphleteer, journalist, orator, and revolutionary activist. As a Muslim modernist and political propagandist, he advocated unity of the Islamic world and selective borrowing from the West for the purpose of stemming the tide of Western imperialism. He was the adviser of Muslim rulers in many parts of the Islamic world and a political activist in Iran, Afghanistan, Egypt, and the Ottoman empire. With him, began the reform movement which gave rise to the Salafiyya and, later on, to the Muslim Brothers.
Afghani, above all else, called for unity amongst all Muslims. However, he did not believe that all Muslims ought to unify under one ruler, or Caliph. Instead, cooperation amongst Muslims was his answer to the weakness that had allowed Muslims to be colonized by the Europeans (namely Britain, Russia, and France). He believed that, in fact, Islam (and its revealed law) was compatible with rationality and thus, Muslims could become politically unified whilst still maintaining their faith based on a religious social morality. These beliefs had a profound effect on Muhammad 'Abduh, who went on to expand on the notion of using rationality in the human relations aspect of Islam (mu'amalat).
Afghani’s development of the philosophical bases for Islamic modernism was left to his most illustrious pupil from the Cairo period, Muhammad ‘Abduh. However, in Afghanistan, Afghans revere his memory and believe him to be a descendant of a family of Sayyids from Asadabad in Kunar Province of Afghanistan, even though most Western scholars agree on Afghani’s Iranian origin.
As a believer in reform and as a pioneer in various forms of political activisim and agitation in many countries, Afghani had an important influence that continues in the Muslim world today.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Jamaluddin Afghani see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
“Father of the Pan-Islamic Movement” see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Muhammad ibn Safdar al-Husayn see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Jamal-al-din Asadabadi see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780 - 855 C.C.) was an important Muslim scholar and theologian born in Khorasan to a family of Arab origin. He is considered the founder of the Hanbali school of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). His full name was Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal Abu `Abd Allah al-Shaybani. Shayban or Banu Shaybah is Ibn Hanbal's tribe. It is an Arabic tribe located in Arabia and it still exists in Saudi Arabia.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal was born at Merv, in Khorasan in 780. Ibn Hanbal's family was of Arabic origin and they spoke Arabic. He started his career by learning jurisprudence (fiqh) under the celebrated Hanafi judge Abu Yusuf, the renowned student and companion of Abu Hanifah. He then discontinued his studies with Abu Yusuf in the pursuit of hadith, travelling around the Caliphate, at the age of 16. It is said that as a student he highly impressed his teachers. Ibn al-Jawzi states that Ibn Hanbal had 414 hadith masters whom he narrated from. Imam al-Shafi’i was one of Ibn Hanbal's teachers with whom he had a mutual respect.
Ibn Hanbal did not content himself with merely seeking knowledge. He also acted, by making jihad, performing the guard duty at Islamic frontiers (ribat) and making hajj five times in his life, twice on foot.
Nevertheless, Ibn Hanbal did spend 40 years of his life in the pursuit of knowledge, and only thereafter did he assume the position of a mufti. By this time, he had mastered six or seven Islamic disciplines, according to al-Shafi'i. He became a leading authority in hadith and left a colossal hadith encyclopaedia, al-Musnad, as a living proof of his proficiency and devotion to this science. He is also remembered as a leading, and the most balanced, critic of hadith in his time. Ibn Hanbal became a principal specialist in jurisprudence, benefitting from some of the famous early jurists, such as Abu Hanifah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Shafi'i, and many others. His learning, piety and unswerving faithfulness to traditions gathered a host of disciples and admirers around him. He further improvised and developed upon previous schools, becoming the founder of a new independent school of jurisprudence, known as the Hanbali school. Some scholars, such as Qutaiba ibn Sa’id, noted that if Ibn Hanbal had witnessed the age of Sufyan al-Thawri, Malik, al-Awza’i and Laith ibn Sa’d, he would have surpassed them all. Despite being bilingual, he became an expert in the Arabic language, poetry, and grammar.
The Caliph Al-Ma'mun subjected scholars to severe persecution at the behest of the Mu'tazili theologians, most notably Bishr al-Marrisi and Ahmad ibn Abi Du’ad, mainly to establish the notion that God created the Qur'an as a physical entity (rather than saying that the Qur'an is God's speech in an indescribable way, as held by the orthodox view).
Almost all of the scholars in Baghdad acknowledged the creation-of-Qur'an doctrine, with the notable exceptions of Ibn Hanbal and Muhammad ibn Nuh. This greatly pained and angered Ibn Hanbal, so that he boycotted some of the great traditionists for their acknowledgement and often refused to narrate hadith from them. Amongst those boycotted were a close companion and a colleague of Ibn Hanbal, Yahya ibn Ma’in, about whom it is said that Ibn Hanbal refused to speak to him until he died.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Muhammad ibn Nuh were also put to the test on the order of al-Ma’mun, but they refused to acknowledge the literal creation of the Qur'an as created like the other of Allah's creatures. Consequently, they were dispatched in irons to be dealt with by al-Ma’mun himself. On the way, Ibn Hanbal supplicated to Allah to prevent him from meeting al-Ma’mun. His prayer was answered in the sudden death of al-Ma’mun.
Due to the death of al-Ma'mun, both Ibn Hanbal and Muhammad ibn Nuh were sent back. Muhammad ibn Nuh passed away on their return journey, and there was none to prepare his funeral, pray over, and bury him except Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
The policy endorsing the created-Qur'an premise was continued by al-Mu'tasim (who is reported to have had Ibn Hanbal flogged) and by al-Wathiq (who banished Ibn Hanbal from Baghdad).
This was ended, however, by al-Mutawakkil who, unlike his predecessors, had the utmost respect and admiration for the Sunni school. Promptly after assuming the position as Caliph, he sent orders throughout the Caliphate to put an immediate end to all discussions regarding the Quran, released all the prisoners of faith, dismissed the Mu’tazili judges, and more significantly deported the chief investigator of the inquisition, Ahmad ibn Abi Du’ad along with his family. He further ordered that the Mu’tazili judges responsible for the inquisition be cursed from the pulpits, by name. Al-Mutawakkil is said to have treated Ibn Hanbal in a special way with great respect.
After Ibn Hanbal turned 77, he was struck with severe illness and fever, and became very weak. However, he never complained about his infirmity and pain. Nevertheless, after hearing of his illness, masses flocked to his door. The ruling family also showed the desire to pay him a visit, and to this end sought his permission. However, due to his desire to remain independent of any influence from the authority, Ahmad denied them access.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal died in Baghdad in Rabi' al-Awwal, 241 AH (Friday, July 31, 855). The news of his death quickly spread far and wide in the city and the people flooded the streets to attend his funeral. One of the rulers, upon hearing the news, sent burial shrouds along with perfumes to be used for the funeral. However, respecting Ibn Hanbal’s wishes, his sons refused the offering and instead used a burial shroud prepared by his female servant. Moreover, his sons took care not to use water from their homes to wash the body, as Ibn Hanbal had refused to utilise any of their resources because they had accepted the offerings of the ruler.
After preparing his funeral, his sons prayed over him, along with around 200 members of the ruling family, while the streets were teeming with both men and women, awaiting the funeral procession. The funeral was then brought out and the multitudes continued to pray over him outdoors, before and after his burial at his grave. According to the Tarjamatul Imam, over 800,000 men and 60,000 women attended the funeral of Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad see Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ibn Hanbal see Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad bin Hanbal see Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmed ibn Hanbal see Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal Abu `Abd Allah al-Shaybani see Ahmad ibn Hanbal
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Hanbalites
Hanbalites (in Arabic, Hanabila; in singular form, Hanbali). Followers of the Sunni school of theology, law and morality which grew up from the teaching of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Hanbalism is the youngest of the four orthodox schools of law in Sunni Islam and it is based on a system of law and theology decidedly traditionalist in orientation. Hanbalism recognizes no other sources than the Qur’an and the Sunna of the Prophet. It is hostile to speculative theology (in Arabic, kalam) and to esoteric Sufism.While not rejecting reason altogether as a source of law, the Hanbali school sought vigorously to circumscribe its scope, emphasizing rather the Qur’an and the sunna as the primary sources of law. Among the Sunni schools of law, Hanbalism was closest to that of the Shafi’is, differing from it mainly in the role assigned to reason. Under the Shi‘a Buyids, Hanbalism became a politico-religious opposition party in Baghdad, contributing decisively to Sunni restoration, as is clear from the works of many Hanbali theologians of this period. The final two centuries of the caliphate in Baghdad (1061-1258) are the golden age of Hanbalism. Some of the great Hanbalites of this epoch were ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn Aqil (d. 1120), Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. 1166), and Ibn al-Jauzi (d.1200).
Under the Bahri Mamelukes, Hanbalism remained very active in Syria and Palestine, the most famous Hanbalite then being Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328). It lost some of its importance in Syria and Palestine under the Circassian Mamelukes, and was not favored by the Ottomans, who gave pre-eminence to Hanafism. In the eighteenth century, under Ottoman rule, Shaykh Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab won over to Hanbalism the amir Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud, the founder of the al-Sa‘ud dynasty of Saudi Arabia. Through the writings of Ibn Taymiyya and the efforts of the Wahhabi movement in the eighteenth century, Hanbali influences made their way to India and Southeast Asia, where even today they continue to be felt.
Hanabila see Hanbalites
Hanbali see Hanbalites
Ahmad Khan, Sayyid (Sayyid Ahmad Khan) (October 17, 1817 - March 27, 1898). Educational, political, and religious reformer and the major formulator of the modern concept of communal identity among Muslims of India in the latter half of the nineteenth century of the Christian calendar. As founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh and leader of the Aligarh movement, he attempted to bring about a synthesis between the culture of the Mughal Empire and the institutions of British rule.
Son of an official of the Mughal court, by then a protectorate of the British East India Company, Sayyid Ahmad was raised in the religious and cultural style of the Mughal literati and scholastic tradition associated with Shah Wali Ullah (Shah Wali Allah). In defiance of the wishes of his elders, he took service as a subordinate official of the British regime in 1836 and spent the next forty years of his life posted in a series of small North Indian towns. At the same time, he was editor of one of the first Urdu newspapers and author of religious and historical works. During the 1857 Revolt, he remained a staunch supporter of British rule, but afterwards published a sharp critique of British policies and attitudes.
During the 1860s, Sayyid Ahmad became an active public leader, journalist, and orator, as well as the founder of a series of schools and associations, all aimed at reconciling British and Indian ideologies and institutions. He established a Scientific Society in 1864, which moved to Aligarh the following year, dedicated to translating European historical and scientific works into Urdu and publishing older works of Indian and Islamic scholarship.
Following a trip to England in 1869/1870 Sayyid Ahmad became determined to establish an autonomous Indian Muslim educational system, which would prepare a new intellectual leadership grounded in Western knowledge as well as in a reformed Islam. Although his religious liberalism inspired intense opposition, the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh, founded in 1875, became a center and symbol of a new concept of communal unity for Indian Muslims.
In 1887, “Sir Syed,” as he came to be known, led a movement of opposition to the Indian National Congress, arguing that its program was inconsistent with the nature of Indian society and the interests of Muslims. After his death, these opinions were deemed a charter for separatist Muslim politics, although Sayyid Ahmad represented more the imperial ideologies of the Mughals and British than the religious nationalism of the movement that led to the creation of the state of Pakistan.
Syed Ahmed Khan (also Sayyid Ahmad Khan), commonly known as "Sir Syed," was an Indian educator and politician, and an Islamic reformer and modernist. Syed Ahmed pioneered modern education for the Muslim community in India by founding the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College, which later developed into the Aligarh Muslim University. His work gave rise to a new generation of Muslim intellectuals and politicians who composed the Aligarh movement to secure the political future of Muslims in India.
Born into Mughal nobility, Syed Ahmed earned a reputation as a distinguished scholar while working as a jurist for the British East India Company. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he remained loyal to the British and was noted for his actions in saving European lives. After the rebellion, he penned the booklet Asbab-e-Bhaghawath-e-Hind ("The Causes of the Indian Mutiny") — a daring critique, at the time, of British policies that he blamed for causing the revolt. Believing that the future of Muslims was threatened by the rigidity of their orthodox outlook, Syed Ahmed began promoting Western-style scientific education by founding modern schools and journals and organising Muslim intellectuals. Towards this goal, Syed Ahmed founded the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 with the aim of promoting social and economic development of Indian Muslims.
One of the most influential Muslim politicians of his time, Syed Ahmed was suspicious of the Indian independence movement and called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Raj. He denounced nationalist organisations such as the Indian National Congress, instead forming organisations to promote Muslim unity and pro-British attitudes and activities. Syed Ahmed promoted the adoption of Urdu as the lingua franca of all Indian Muslims, and mentored a rising generation of Muslim politicians and intellectuals. Although hailed as a great Muslim leader and social reformer, Syed Ahmed remains the subject of controversy for his views on Hindu-Muslim issues.
Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur was born in Delhi, then the capital of the Mughal Empire. His family is said to have migrated from [Herat] (now in [Afghanistan]) in the time of emperor Akbar, although by other accounts his family descended from Arabia. Many generations of his family had since been highly connected with the Mughal administration. His maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as wazir in the court of Akbar Shah II. His paternal grandfather Syed Hadi held a mansab, a high-ranking administrative position and honorary name of Jawwad Ali Khan in the court of Alamgir II. Syed's father Mir Muhammad Muttaqi was personally close to Akbar Shah II and served as his personal adviser. However, Syed Ahmed was born at a time when rebellious governors, regional insurrections and the British colonialism had diminished the extent and power of the Mughal state, reducing its monarch to a figurehead status. With his elder brother Syed Muhammad Khan, Syed Ahmed was raised in a large house in a wealthy area of the city. They were raised in strict accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Azis-un-Nisa played a formative role in Syed Ahmed's life, raising him with rigid discipline and with a strong emphasis on education. Syed Ahmed was taught to read and understand the Qur'an by a female tutor, which was unusual at the time. He received an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. Under the charge of Maulvi Hamiduddin, Syed Ahmed was trained in Persian, Arabic, Urdu and religious subjects. He read the works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Rumi and Ghalib. Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and Islamic jurisprudence. Syed Ahmed was also adept at swimming, wrestling and other sports. He took an active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities. His elder brother founded the city's first printing press in the Urdu language along with the journal Sayyad-ul-Akbar. Syed Ahmed pursued the study of medicine for several years, but did not complete the prescribed course of study. Until the death of his father in 1838, Syed Ahmed had lived a life customary for an affluent young Muslim noble. Upon his father's death, he inherited the titles of his grandfather and father and was awarded the title of Arif Jung by the emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. Financial difficulties put an end to Syed Ahmed's formal education, although he continued to study in private, using books on a variety of subjects. Syed Ahmed assumed editorship of his brother's journal and rejected offers of employment from the Mughal court. Having recognised the steady decline in Mughal political power, Syed Ahmed entered the British East India Company's civil service. He was appointed serestadar at the courts of law in Agra, responsible for record-keeping and managing court affairs. In 1840, he was promoted to the title of munshi.
The Social Reformer was a pioneering publication initiated by Syed Ahmed to promote liberal ideas in Muslim society. While continuing to work as a jurist, Syed Ahmed began focusing on writing on various subjects, mainly in Urdu. His career as an author began when he published a series of treatises in Urdu on religious subjects in 1842. He published the book Athar Assanadid ("Great Monuments") documenting antiquities of Delhi dating from the medieval era. This work earned him the reputation of a cultured scholar. In 1842, he completed the Jila-ul-Qulub bi Zikr il Mahbub and the Tuhfa-i-Hasan, along with the Tahsil fi jar-i-Saqil in 1844. These works focused on religious and cultural subjects. In 1852, he published the two works Namiqa dar bayan masala tasawwur-i-Shaikh and Silsilat ul-Mulk. He released the second edition of Athar Assanadid in 1854. He also penned a commentary on the Bible in which he argued that Islam was the closest religion to Christianity, with a common lineage from Abrahamic religions.
Acquainted with high-ranking British officials, Syed Ahmed obtained close knowledge about British colonial politics during his service at the courts. At the outbreak of the Indian rebellion, on May 10, 1857, Syed Ahmed was serving as the chief assessment officer at the court in Bijnor. Northern India became the scene of the most intense fighting. The conflict had left large numbers of civilians dead. Erstwhile centres of Muslim power such as Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Kanpur were severely affected. Syed Ahmed was personally affected by the violence and the ending of the Mughal dynasty amongst many other long-standing kingdoms. Syed Ahmed and many other Muslims took this as a defeat of Muslim society. He lost several close relatives who died in the violence. Although he succeeded in rescuing his mother from the turmoil, she died in Meerut, owing to the privations she had experienced.
In 1858, Syed Ahmed was appointed to a high-ranking post at the court in Muradabad, where he began working on his most famous literary work. Publishing the booklet Asbab-e-Bhaghawath-e-Hind in 1859, Syed Ahmed studied the causes of the revolt. In this, his most famous work, he rejected the common notion that the conspiracy was planned by Muslim élites, who were insecure at the diminishing influence of Muslim monarchs. Syed Ahmed blamed the British East India Company for its aggressive expansion as well as the ignorance of British politicians regarding Indian culture. However, he gained respect for British power, which he felt would dominate India for a long period of time. Seeking to rehabilitate Muslim political influence, Syed Ahmed advised the British to appoint Muslims to assist in administration. His other writings such as Loyal Muhammadans of India, Tabyin-ul-Kalam and A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein helped to create cordial relations between the British authorities and the Muslim community.
Through the 1850s, Syed Ahmed Khan began developing a strong passion for education. While pursuing studies of different subjects including European [jurisprudence], Syed Ahmed began to realize the advantages of Western-style education, which was being offered at newly-established colleges across India. Despite being a devout Muslim, Syed Ahmed criticized the influence of traditional dogma and religious orthodoxy, which had made most Indian Muslims suspicious of British influences. Syed Ahmed began feeling increasingly concerned for the future of Muslim communities. A scion of Mughal nobility, Syed Ahmed had been reared in the finest traditions of Muslim élite culture and was aware of the steady decline of Muslim political power across India. The animosity between the British and Muslims before and after the rebellion (Independence War) of 1857 threatened to marginalize Muslim communities across India for many generations. Syed Ahmed intensified his work to promote co-operation with British authorities, promoting loyalty to the Empire amongst Indian Muslims. Committed to working for the uplifting of Muslims, Syed Ahmed founded a modern madrassa in Muradabad in 1859. This was one of the first religious schools to impart scientific education. Syed Ahmed also worked on social causes, helping to organize relief for the famine-struck people of the Northwest Frontier Province in 1860. He established another modern school in Ghazipur in 1863.
Upon his transfer to Aligarh in 1864, Syed Ahmed began working wholeheartedly as an educator. He founded the Scientific Society of Aligarh, the first scientific association of its kind in India. Modelling it after the Royal Society and the Royal Asiatic Society, Syed Ahmed assembled Muslim scholars from different parts of the country. The Society held annual conferences, disbursed funds for educational causes and regularly published a journal on scientific subjects in English and Urdu. Syed Ahmed felt that the socio-economic future of Muslims was threatened by their orthodox aversions to modern science and technology. He published many writings promoting liberal, rational interpretations of Islamic scriptures. However, his view of Islam was rejected by Muslim clergy as contrary to traditional views on issues like jihad, polygamy and animal slaughtering. In face of pressure from religious Muslims, Syed Ahmed avoided discussing religious subjects in his writings, focusing instead on promoting education.
The onset of the Hindi-Urdu controversy of 1867 saw the emergence of Syed Ahmed as a political leader of the Muslim community. He became a leading Muslim voice opposing the adoption of Hindi as a second official language of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). Syed Ahmed perceived Urdu as the lingua franca of Muslims. Having been developed by Muslim rulers of India, Urdu was used as a secondary language to Persian, the official language of the Mughal court. Since the decline of the Mughal dynasty, Syed Ahmed promoted the use of Urdu through his own writings. Under Syed Ahmed, the Scientific Society translated Western works only into Urdu. The schools established by Syed Ahmed imparted education in the Urdu medium. The demand for Hindi, led largely by Hindus, was to Syed Ahmed an erosion of the centuries-old Muslim cultural domination of India. Testifying before the British-appointed education commission, Syed Ahmed controversially exclaimed that "Urdu was the language of gentry and Hindi that of the vulgar." His remarks provoked a hostile response from Hindu leaders, who unified across the nation to demand the recognition of Hindi.
The success of the Hindi movement led Syed Ahmed to further advocate Urdu as the symbol of Muslim heritage and as the language of all Indian Muslims. His educational and political work grew increasingly centered around, and exclusively for, Muslim interests. He also sought to persuade the British to give Urdu extensive official use and patronage. His colleagues and protégés such as Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq developed organisations such as the Urdu Defence Association and the Anjuman Taraqqi-i-Urdu, committed to the perpetuation of Urdu. Syed Ahmed's protégé Shibli Nomani led efforts that resulted in the adoption of Urdu as the official language of the Hyderabad State and as the medium of instruction in the Osmania University. To Muslims in northern and western India, Urdu had become an integral part of political and cultural identity. However, the division over the use of Hindi or Urdu further provoked communal conflict between Muslims and Hindus in India.
On April 1, 1869, Syed Ahmed travelled to England, where he was awarded the Order of the Star of India from the British government on August 6. Travelling across England, he visited its colleges and was inspired by the culture of learning established after the Renaissance. Syed Ahmed returned to India in the following year determined to build a "Muslim Cambridge." Upon his return, he organized the "Committee for the Better Diffusion and Advancement of Learning among Muhammadans" (Muslims) on December 26, 1870.
By 1873, the committee under Syed Ahmed issued proposals for the construction of a college in Aligarh. He began publishing the journal Tahzib al-Akhlaq (Social Reformer) to spread awareness and knowledge on modern subjects and promote reforms in Muslim society. Syed Ahmed worked to promote re-interpretation of Muslim ideology in order to reconcile tradition with Western education. He argued in several books on Islam that the Qur'an rested on an appreciation of reason and natural law, making scientific inquiry important to being a good Muslim. Syed Ahmed established a modern school in Aligarh and, obtaining support from wealthy Muslims and the British, laid the foundation stone of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College on May 24, 1875. He retired from his career as a jurist the following year, concentrating entirely on developing the college and on religious reform. Syed Ahmed's pioneering work received support from the British. Although intensely criticized by orthodox religious leaders hostile to modern influences, Syed Ahmed's new institution attracted a large student body, mainly drawn from the Muslim gentry and middle classes. The curriculum at the college involved scientific and Western subjects, as well as Oriental subjects and religious education. The first chancellor was Sultan Shah Jahan Begum, a prominent Muslim noblewoman, and Syed Ahmed invited an Englishman, Theodore Beck, to serve as the first college principal. The college was originally affiliated with Calcutta University but was transferred to the Allahabad University in 1885. Near the turn of the 20th century, it began publishing its own magazine and established a law school. In 1920, the college was transformed into a university.
In 1878, Syed Ahmed was nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council. He testified before the education commission to promote the establishment of more colleges and schools across India. In the same year, Syed Ahmed founded the Muhammadan Association to promote political co-operation amongst Indian Muslims from different parts of the country. In 1886, he organized the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Aligarh, which promoted his vision of modern education and political unity for Muslims. His works made him the most prominent Muslim politician in 19th century India, often influencing the attitude of Muslims on various national issues. He supported the efforts of Indian political leaders Surendranath Banerjea and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation for Indians in the government and civil services. In 1883, he founded the Muhammadan Civil Service Fund Association to encourage and support the entry of Muslim graduates into the Indian Civil Service (ICS).
Syed Ahmed's political views were shaped by a strong aversion to the emerging nationalist movement, which was composed largely of Hindus. Syed Ahmed opposed the Indian National Congress (created in 1885) on the grounds that it was a Hindu-majority organization. Syed Ahmed called on Muslims to stay away from it. While fearful of the loss of Muslim political power owing to the community's backwardness, Syed Ahmed was also averse to the prospect of democratic self-government, which would give control of government to the Hindu-majority population.
Syed Ahmed's fierce criticism of the Congress and Indian nationalists created rifts between Muslims and Hindus. At the same time, Syed Ahmed sought to politically ally Muslims to the British government. An avowed loyalist of the British Empire, Syed Ahmed was nominated as a member of the Civil Service Commission in 1887 by Lord Dufferin. In 1888, he established the United Patriotic Association at Aligarh to promote political co-operation with the British and Muslim participation in the government. Syed Ahmed Khan was knighted by the British government in 1888 and in the following year he received an LL.D. honoris causa from the Edinburgh University.
Syed Ahmed Khan lived the last two decades of his life in Aligarh, regarded widely as the mentor of 19th- and 20th century Muslim intellectuals and politicians. He remained the most influential Muslim politician in India, with his opinions guiding the convictions of a large majority of Muslims. Battling illnesses and old age, Syed Ahmed died on March 27, 1898. He was buried besides Syed Masjid inside the campus of the Aligarh university. His funeral was attended by thousands of students, Muslim leaders and British officials. Syed Ahmed is widely commemorated across South Asia as a great Muslim reformer and visionary.
The university he founded remains one of India's most prominent institutions. Prominent alumni of Aligarh include Muslim political leaders Maulana Mohammad Ali, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulvi Abdul Haq, who is hailed in Pakistan as Baba-e-Urdu (Father of Urdu). The first two Prime Ministers of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin, as well as the late Indian President Dr. Zakir Hussain, are amongst Aligarh's most famous graduates. In India, Syed Ahmed is commemorated as a pioneer who worked for the socio-political upliftment of Indian Muslims, though his views on Hindu-Muslim issues are a subject of controversy. Syed Ahmed is also hailed as a founding father of Pakistan for his role in developing a Muslim political class independent of Hindu-majority organizations. The Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology was established in honor of Syed Ahmed in Karachi and is a leading technical institution in Pakistan. Furthermore, Sir Syed Government Girls College in Karachi, Pakistan is also named in the honor of Syed Ahmed Khan.
During his lifetime and in contemporary times, Syed Ahmed was criticised for encouraging communal divisions between Hindus and Muslims. He is identified by historians as one of the earliest advocates of the Two-Nation Theory — that Hindus and Muslims were distinct and incompatible nations. Historians argue that Syed Ahmed was emotionally unable to accept the prospect that an independent India's Hindu-majority would come to rule Muslims, who had been the erstwhile colonial rulers. He also feared that Hindu culture would diminish the Perso-Arabic nature of Muslim culture, which had enjoyed a dominant status under Muslim rulers for centuries. His condemnation of Indian nationalists and profession of the incompatibility of Muslims and Hindus widened the socio-political gulf between the communities that had emerged with the Urdu-Hindi controversy.
Supporters of Syed Ahmed contend that his political vision gave an independent political expression to the Muslim community, which aided its goal to secure political power in India. His philosophy guided the creation of the All India Muslim League in 1906, as a political party separate from the Congress. Syed Ahmed's ideas inspired both the liberal, pro-British politicians of the Muslim League and the religious ideologues of the Khilafat struggle. The Muslim League remained at odds with the Congress and continued to advocate the boycott of the Indian independence movement. In the 1940s, the student body of Aligarh committed itself to the establishment of Pakistan and contributed in a large measure to the activities of the Muslim League. Syed Ahmed's patronage of Urdu led to its widespread use amongst Indian Muslim communities and following the Partition of India its adoption as the official language of Pakistan, even though the most spoken Pakistani languages were Bengali and Punjabi.
Khan, Sayyid Ahmad see Ahmad Khan, Sayyid
"Sir Syed" see Ahmad Khan, Sayyid
Syed Ahmed Khan see Ahmad Khan, Sayyid
‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr (‘A’isha) (Aishah) (Ayeshah) (c.614-678). Abu Bakr’s daughter and one of Muhammad’s wives. ‘A’isha was born in Mecca and became the third and favorite wife of the Prophet Muhammad after the death of Muhammad’s first wife, Khadija (c.555-619). In order to strengthen ties with Abu Bakr, his chief legal adviser, Muhammad married ‘A’isha, Abu Bakr’s daughter, when she was about nine years old, shortly after the hijra. When ‘A’isha went to live in an apartment in Muhammad’s house, she took her toys and games. This childhood innocence coupled with her charm and beauty made her Muhammad’s favorite. Even after subsequent marriages of the Prophet, ‘A’isha remained devoted to Muhammad.
‘A’isha became the leader in the harem, but her relations with Muhammad were marked by an incident in which she was accused of infidelity. In 627, while waiting in a camp from which the caravan had moved off, ‘A’isha was found by a young man who escorted her to Medina. This led to gossip concerning possible infidelity which was countered by a revelation to the Prophet. ‘A’isha’s innocence was proved by the Qur’an in Sura 24:11-20, but 'Ali ibn Abi Talib was among those who advised Muhammad to send ‘A’isha back to her father to avoid even the hint of impropriety. This advice earned 'Ali, ‘A’isha’s bitter enmity.
Nevertheless, for her faithfulness, ‘A’isha is known among Muslims as “Mother of the Believers.” After the death of Muhammad in 632, ‘A’isha, a childless widow of 18, helped her father become the first caliph, or ruler, of the Muslims.
‘A’isha was always loyal to Muhammad and to her father, but seems to have played no major role in politics until the caliphate of ‘Uthman, whom she opposed on moral grounds. ‘A’isha was not implicated in ‘Uthman’s death, being in Mecca at the time, but she may have been there organizing her own party, for shortly after the murder she was found in Basra with an army of a thousand, including Talha and Zubayr, who were, while claiming to seek vengeance for ‘Uthman, also opposed the caliphate of 'Ali.
‘A’isha’s forces were defeated by the forces of 'Ali at the Battle of the Camel in December of 656. However, after the defeat, ‘A’isha herself was well treated and lived until July of 678.
Because of her unique stature in Islam, ‘A’isha is the source of many hadith.
Aisha (Aisha meaning "she who lives"), was the third wife of Muhammad. In Islamic writings, she is thus often referred to by the title "Mother of the Believers" (in Arabic: umm-al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives as "Mothers of Believers" in the Qur'an (33.6), and later, as the "Mother of Believers", as in Qutb's Ma'alim fi al-Tariq. She is quoted as the source for many hadith, sacred traditions about Muhammad's life, with Muhammad's personal life being the topic of most narrations. She narrated 2210 hadiths out of which 316 hadiths are mentioned in both Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.
Aisha was the daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Abu Bakr belonged to the Banu Taym sub-clan of the tribe of Quraysh, the tribe to which Muhammad also belonged. Aisha is said to have followed her father in accepting Islam when she was still young. She also joined him in his migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 615. A number of Mecca's Muslims emigrated then, seeking refuge from persecution by the Meccans who still followed their pre-Islamic religions.
According to the early Islamic historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Aisha's father tried to spare her the dangers and discomfort of the journey by solemnizing her marriage to her fiance, Jubayr ibn Mut'im, son of Mut‘im ibn ‘Adi. However, Mut’am refused to honor the long-standing betrothal, as he did not wish his family to be connected to the Muslim outcasts. The emigration to Ethiopia proved temporary and Abu Bakr's family returned to Mecca within a few years. Aisha was then betrothed to Muhammad.
Aisha was initially betrothed to Jubayr ibn Mut'im, a Muslim whose father, though pagan, was friendly to the Muslims. When Khawla bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad marry Aisha after the death of Muhammad's first wife (Khadijah bint Khuwaylid), the previous agreement regarding marriage of Aisha with ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent. It is suggested that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr, and that the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.
According to the traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad. She stayed in her parents' home until the age of nine, when the marriage was consummated. The marriage was delayed until after the Hijra, or migration to Medina, in 622. Aisha and her older sister Asma bint Abu Bakr only moved to Medina after Muhammad had already migrated there. After this, the wedding was celebrated very simply. The sources do not offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years, but mention that after the wedding, she continued to play with her toys, and Muhammad entered into the spirit of these games.
Most early accounts say that Muhammad and Aisha became sincerely fond of each other. Aisha is usually described as Muhammad's favorite wife, and it was in her company that Muhammad reportedly received the most revelations. Some accounts claim it was the curtain from her tent that Muhammad used as his battle standard.
Aisha was traveling with her husband Muhammad and some of his followers. Aisha claimed that she had left camp in the morning to search for her lost necklace, but when she returned, she found that the company had broken camp and left without her. She waited for half a day, until she was rescued by a man named Safwan ibn Al-Muattal and taken to rejoin the caravan. This led to speculation that she had committed adultery with Safwan. Muhammad's adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah defended Aisha's reputation. Shortly after this, Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses. These verses also rebuked Aisha's accusers, whom Muhammad ordered to receive forty lashes.
Ibn Kathir wrote in his biography of Muhammad that Muhammad's wife Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya was given a skin filled with honey, which she shared with her husband. Muhammad was fond of sweets and stayed overlong with Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya. At least in the opinion of Aisha and her co-wife Hafsa bint Umar. Aisha and Hafsa conspired. Each of them was to tell Muhammad that the honey had given him bad breath. When he heard this from two wives, he believed that it was true and swore that he would eat no more of the honey. Soon afterwards, he reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God.
Word spread in the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were taking advantage of their husband, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they had admitted their wrongdoing, and harmony was restored.
Ibn Ishaq, in his Sirah Rasul Allah, states that during Muhammad's last illness, he sought Aisha's apartments and died with his head in her lap. It highlighted Muhammad's fondness for Aisha. Aisha never remarried after Muhammad's death. Indeed, a passage in the Qur'an (Sura 33:53) forbade any Muslim to marry a widow of Muhammad.
After Muhammad's death in 632, Aisha's father, Abu Bakr, became the first caliph, or leader of the Muslims. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shi'a. The Shi'a believe that 'Ali had been chosen to lead by Muhammad, but the Sunni maintain that the Muslim community chose Abu Bakr, and did so in accordance with Muhammad's wishes.
Abu Bakr's reign was short, and in 634 he was succeeded by Umar, as caliph. Umar reigned for ten years, and was then followed by Uthman Ibn Affan in 644 AD. Both of these men had been among Muhammad's earliest followers, were linked to him by clanship and marriage, and had taken prominent parts in various military campaigns. Aisha, in the meantime, lived in Medina and made several pilgrimages to Mecca.
In 656, Aisha took part in provoking the people to kill Uthman. The rebels then asked Ali to be the new caliph. Many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. Ali is reported to have refused the caliphate. He agreed to rule only after his followers persisted.
Aisha raised an army which confronted Ali's army outside the city of Basra. It was during this engagement that Muslim slaughtered Muslim for the first time. A battle ensued and Aisha's forces were defeated. Aisha was directing her forces from a howdah on the back of a camel. Accordingly, this 656 battle is called the Battle of the Camel.
Ali captured Aisha but declined to harm her. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (a brother of Aisha), who was one of the commanders in Ali's army
Historians see Aisha as a learned woman, who tirelessly recounted stories from the life of Muhammad and explained Muslim history and traditions. She is considered to be one of the foremost scholars of Islam's early age with some historians accrediting up to one-quarter of the Islamic Sharia (Islamic religious law), based on the collection of hadiths, to have stemmed from her narrations. Aisha became the most prominent of Muhammad’s wives and is revered as a role model by millions of women.
After Khadijah al-Kubra (the Great) and Fatimah az-Zahra (the Resplendent), Aishah as-Siddiqah (the one who affirms the Truth) is regarded as the best woman in Islam by Sunni Muslims. She often regretted her involvement in war but lived long enough to regain status and position. She died peacefully in the year 678 in the month of Ramadan. As she instructed, she was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi -- in the City of Light -- beside other companions of Muhammad.
The Sunnis' view of 'A'isha is a positive one. Many believe that she was Muhammad's favorite wife and the best woman of her time. They consider her (amongst other wives) to be Umm al-Mu'minin and among the Ahl al-Bayt.
However, the Shi'a view of 'A'isha is generally a negative one. This is primarily due to what they see as her contempt for the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family) and her attempts to stir up the fitnah of the time. Her participation in the Battle of the Camel is widely considered her most significant sign of such contempt. They also do not believe that she conducted herself in an appropriate manner in her role as Muhammad's wife .
‘A’isha see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Aishah see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Ayeshah see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
“Mother of the Believers” see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
"She Who Lives" see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Akbar (Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar) (Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar) (Akbar the Great) (Badruddin Mohammed Akbar) (October 15, 1542 – October 17 or October 27, 1605). The third Mughal emperor of India (r. 1556-1605). He is generally considered to be the true founder of the Mughal Empire and to be the greatest of the Mughal emperors. The son of Emperor Humayun, Akbar was born in Umarkot, Sind (now part of Pakistan). He succeeded to the throne at the age of 13. Akbar first ruled under a regent, Bairam Khan, who did much to re-capture for the young emperor the territory usurped by his enemies at the death of his father. In 1560, however, Akbar took the government into his own hands. Realizing that Hindu acceptance and cooperation was essential to the successful rule of any Indian empire worthy of that name, Akbar won the allegiance of the Rajputs, the most belligerent sector of the Hindu population, by a shrewd blend of tolerance, generosity, and force. Indeed, Akbar himself married two Rajput princesses.
Having neutralized the Hindus, Akbar further enlarged his realm by conquest until it extended from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and from the Himalaya to the Godavari River. Akbar’s supreme achievement, however, was the establishment of an efficient administrative system that held the empire together and stimulated trade and economic development.
Akbar put the Mughal Empire on an administrative footing that was to sustain it until the mid-eighteenth century. The basic institution of this administrative structure was the mansabdari system. Akbar integrated leaders of the indigenous ruling class, the Rajputs, into the imperial framework. In the preceding three centuries, Rajputs and the imperial rulers at Delhi had been at loggerheads, neither side gaining a decisive victory over the other. Akbar resolved the conflict with generous treatment of those who submitted to his authority and ruthless treatment of the few who did not.
Akbar had inherited a nobility almost equally divided between Mughals and Persians. Over the next quarter century he gradually altered this composition by inducting at the highest echelon diverse elements such as Afghans, Indian Muslims, and Hindus so that by 1580 every group had been reduced to a small minority in no position to dominate over others or the emperor. In this context, Akbar’s political and religious philosophy of mutual tolerance (“peace with all”) found ready acceptance. The diverse yet well-balanced elements in the nobility, along with the efficient administrative apparatus, also gave successive Mughal emperors a much greater degree of centralized power than any other dynasty in Indian history.
Akbar also perfected a mechanism of revenue administration that was to last until the end of the empire. After several experiments, the “Ten-Year Settlement” was formulated. Land was divided into four categories according to the period for which it lay uncultivated, the ideal being uninterrupted cultivation. Differential rates of revenue were imposed on these categories with an increase in the rate as land moved from a lower to a higher category. Average yields of each field over the preceding ten years were assessed, as were average prices of crops in neighboring markets over the same period. Revenue was fixed at between one-fourth and one-half of the gross produce, depending on the region and the crop. This share was then converted into market prices. If revenue was collected in kind, this was also converted into cash through sale. Rates were subject to revision. This tax system was essentially regressive, for it imposed the same rates on all cultivators without respect to their resources.
Almost as notable was Akbar’s promulgation of a new religion, the Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Faith”), a blend of Islam, Brahmanism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Although this attempt failed, Akbar surrounded himself with learned men of all faiths and, although illiterate himself, made his court a center of arts and letters. Akbar took a keen interest in history writing, translation of Hindu scriptures into Persian, painting, and architecture. New schools were established in each of these areas mainly by blending Indian and Persian culture.
Of all the Mughal rulers of India, only Akbar is remembered with fondness by present day Hindus, for whom his name has become synonymous with religious tolerance. From the standpoint of Islam, however, Akbar is often pictured as a heretic, intent upon destroying the “true faith” in the interests of political expediency.
Deeply moved by several intense mystical experiences, Akbar established a Hall of Worship where, every Thursday, Muslims of various sects would debate points of theology. In 1582, Akbar apparently gave up on his attempts to reform Islam from within and founded a new religion, the Din Ilahi -- the “Divine Faith”.
The Din Ilahi became an ecletic faith aimed more at synthesizing Indian and Mughal culture than at preaching a new path to the Divine. Seasonal vegetarianism was encouraged and the killing of cows was made a crime punishable by death. Special taxes against Hindus were lifted and many were appointed to administrative positions in Akbar’s government. During Akbar’s reign, no new mosques were allowed to be built; the study of Arabic and Islamic law was discouraged; and no male could bear the revered name of Muhammad.
Akbar found fault with all dogmas. Thus, on his deathbed, he would not allow sectarian prayers of any kind to be said for him.
Akbar’s Din Ilahi soon passed away with him. The Din Ilahi is now not much more than an historical curiosity -- a religion created by a Muslim with Hindu sympathies but which essentially was a religion with no stated creed.
Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605. He was the grandson of Babur who founded the Mughal dynasty. On the eve of his death in 1605, the Mughal empire spanned almost 1 million square kilometers.
Akbar, widely considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, was only 14 when he ascended the throne in Delhi, following the death of his father Humayun. He was descended from Turks, Mongols, and Persians — the three peoples who predominated in the political elites of northern India in medieval times. It took him the better part of two decades to consolidate his power and bring parts of northern and central India into his realm. During his reign, he reduced external military threats from the Afghan descendants of Sher Shah by waging wars against Afghan tribes, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he defeated the Hindu king Samrat Hemu Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu.The emperor solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Rajput caste, and by admitting Rajput princesses into his harem.
Akbar was an artisan, artist, armorer, blacksmith, carpenter, emperor, general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologist and theologian. His most lasting contributions were to the arts. He initiated a large collection of literature, including the Akbar-nama and the Ain-i-Akbari, and incorporated art from around the world into the Mughal collections. He also commissioned the building of widely admired buildings, and invented the first prefabricated homes and movable structures. Akbar began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Sikhs, Hindus, Carvaka atheists and even Jesuits from Portugal. He founded his own religious cult, the Din-i-Ilahi or the "Divine Faith"; however, it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved after his death.
At birth, Akbar was named Badruddin Mohammed Akbar, because he was born on the night of a badruddin (full moon). After the capture of Kabul by Humayun his date of birth and name were changed to throw off evil sorcerers. Popular myth records that Akbar, meaning "Great", was a title given to Akbar by the people of India. In fact, he was given the name Akbar at birth after his maternal grandfather, Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami.
Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Sind where the Mughal Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum were taking refuge. Humayun had been driven into exile, following decisive battles, by the Afghan leader Sher Shah Suri. Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents and soon they were transferred to the Princely State of Rewa (in present day Madhya Pradesh) where Akbar grew up in the village of Mukundpur. Akbar and prince Ram Singh who later became Maharaja of Rewa grew up together and stayed close friends throughout life.
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. For some time, Akbar was raised by his uncle Askari and his wife in the eastern country of Persia - what is now modern Afghanistan - rather than in the splendor of the Persian court. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, but he never learned to read or write, the sole exception in Babur's line. Nonetheless, Akbar matured into a well-informed ruler, with refined tastes in the arts, architecture, music, a love for literature, and a breadth of vision that tolerated other opinions.
Following the chaos over the succession of Islam Shah (Sher Khan Suri's son), Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Shah Tahmasp. Months later, Humayun died. Bairam Khan cleverly concealed the report of Humayun's death in order to prepare for Akbar's accession to the throne. Akbar succeeded his father on February 14, 1556 (Gregorian February 24), while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah for the reclamation of the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur (Gurdaspur, Punjab) the 13 year old Akbar donned a golden robe and Dark Tiara and sat on a newly constructed platform, which still stands, and was proclaimed Shahanshah (Persian for "King of Kings"). The mosque built at the time of Akbar can still be seen and the place where he prayed can be visited.
Akbar decided early in his reign that he should eliminate the threat of Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left Delhi under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan.
Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbar approached. However, back in Delhi Hemu, a Hindu King, also known as Hemu Vikramaditya, captured Agra and then Delhi on October 6, 1556 and declared himself as Emperor of India. Tardi Beg Khan promptly fled the city. Hemu Vikramaditya, who during three years from October 1553 to October 1556, had won 22 successive battles not only appointed himself the ruler, or Raja Vikramaditya, but also re-established the Hindu Kingdom in Delhi.
News of the capitulation of Delhi spread quickly to Akbar, and he was advised to withdraw to Kabul, which was relatively secure. But urged by Bairam Khan, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. To bolster troop morale, he ordered that someone should "prepare fireworks as a treat for the soldiers" and "make an image of Hemu, fill it with gunpowder, and set it on fire". Tardi Beg and his retreating troops joined the march, and also urged Akbar to retreat to Kabul, but he refused again. Later, Bairam Khan had the former regent executed for cowardice, though Abul Fazl and Jahangir both record that they believed that Bairam Khan was merely using the retreat from Delhi as an excuse to eliminate a rival.
Akbar's army defeated the more numerous forces of Hemu Vikramaditya at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi, thanks to a chance arrow into Hemu's eye. Hemu was brought to Akbar unconscious, and was beheaded. Hemu's body was cut into pieces, his head was hung outside Delhi Darwaza, while his torso was hung outside Purana Qila, opposite present day Pragati Maidan in Delhi. Acting out as a Ghazi ("victor"), Akbar constructed a victory pillar made from the heads of the captured/surrendered army of Raja Hemchandra Vikramaditiya and rebellious soldiers, just like Babur did. Pictures of such towers are displayed in the National Museum, New Delhi, and Panipat Museum in Haryana.
The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar surrendered and so was spared death, and lived the last remaining two years of his life on a large estate granted to him by Akbar. In 1557, Adil Shah, brother of Sikandar, died during a battle in Bengal.
Akbar was only 14 years old when he became emperor, and so his general ruled on his behalf until he came of age. The regency belonged to Bairam Khan, a Shi'a (Afghan) noble born in Badakhshan who successfully dealt with pretenders to the throne and improved the discipline of the Mughal armies. He ensured power was centralised and was able to expand the empires boundaries with orders from the capital. These moves helped to consolidate Mughal power in the newly recovered empire.
Respect for Bairam's regency was not, however, universal. There were many people plotting his demise in order to assume the apparent absolute rule they saw in him. Much was written, critically, of his religion.
The majority of the early court were Sunni Muslims, and Bairam's Shi'ism was disliked. Bairam knew about this, and perhaps even to spite that, appointed a Shia Sheikh, Shaikh Gadai Kamboh, to become the Administrator General, one of the more important roles in the empire. Additionally, Bairam lived a rather opulent lifestyle, which appeared to be even more excessive than that of Akbar.
The most serious of those opposed to Bairam was Maham Anga, Akbar's aunt, chief nurse and mother of his foster brother, Adham Khan. Maham was both shrewd and manipulative and hoped to rule herself by proxy through her son. In March 1560 the pair of them urged Akbar to visit them in Delhi, leaving Bairam in the capital, Agra. While in Delhi Akbar was bombarded by people who told him he was now ready to take full control of the empire and to dismiss Bairam. He was persuaded to fund an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to Mecca, which was to act, essentially, as a form of ostracism. Bairam was shocked at the news from Delhi, but was loyal to Akbar, and despite Akbar's refusal to even meet with the General, refused the suggestions by some of his commanders to march on Delhi and "rescue" Akbar.
Bairam left for Mecca, but was quickly met by an army sent by Adham Khan, approved by Akbar, which was sent to "escort" him from the Mughal territories. Bairam saw this as the last straw, and led an attack on the army, but was captured and sent as a rebel back to Akbar to be sentenced. Bairam Khan, whose military genius had seen the Mughals regain their lands in India, who had served both Humayun and Akbar loyally, and laid the foundation for a strong empire, was now before the emperor as a prisoner. Maham Anga urged Akbar to execute Bairam, but Akbar refused. Instead, in defiance of Anga, he laid down full honors to the General, and gave him robes of honor, and agreed to fund him a proper hajj excursion. However, shortly after Bairam Khan's hajj journey got underway, just before he reached the port city of Khambhat he was killed by an Afghan assassin whose father had been killed five years earlier in a battle led by Bairam. Bairam died on January 31, 1561.
Akbar is recorded as saying "A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, lest his neighbors rise in arms against him", and he went on to expand the Mughal empire to include Malwa (1562), Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1574), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and Kandesh (1601), among others. Akbar installed a governor over each of the conquered provinces, under his authority.
Akbar did not want to have his court tied too closely to the city of Delhi. He ordered the court moved to Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, but when this site proved untenable, he set up a roaming camp that let him keep a close eye on what was happening throughout the empire. He developed and encouraged commerce.
Akbar's tax reforms were especially noteworthy, and formed the basis of the Mughal Empire's immense wealth in succeeding generations. His officials prepared a detailed and accurate cadaster (land register) noting each land parcel's soil quality, water access, and so assessed their value, taking account of prevailing prices for various crops in each region. This was a distinct improvement on earlier land tax systems, including the Egyptian and Roman ones, which had levied land taxes as an in-kind share of the harvest. By making taxes reflect the value of the land rather than the harvest, this stimulated both improvements in investments and more productive use of the land. The economic effect was such that the revered Qing emperor Kang Xi adopted similar measures a century later in China, with similar success.
Starting in 1571, Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means "town of victory") near Agra. Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.
Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazl in the books Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari. Fazl gave a positive spin to Akbar's reign by glossing over uncomfortable facts of the emperor's reign related to his interaction with other communities of his empire, which has been repeated by numerous historians over the years. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign like the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi were written outside of court influence and hence contain more authentic information and less flattery for Akbar.
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar see Akbar
Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar see Akbar
Akbar the Great see Akbar
Badruddin Mohammed Akbar see Akbar
‘Ali al-Rida ('Ali ibn Musa al-Rida) ('Ali ar-Ridha) (Ali Reza) (c. December 29, 765 - August 23, 818). Eighth Imam of the Twelver Shi‘a (r. 799-818). He was born in Medina and was summoned from a quiet, scholarly life by the reigning Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun to accept appointment as heir apparent, with the title al-Rida.
‘Ali al-Rida’s imamate coincided with a great reversal of fortune for the Shi‘a. He attained the imamate at the age of 35 after the brutal persecution and martyrdom of this father, Musa al-Kazim, at the hands of the Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. After Harun’s death, however, events rapidly evolved. After a civil war between Harun’s sons Amin and Ma’mun ended in Ma’mun’s victory, ‘Ali al-Rida was summoned to Ma’mun’s capital at Merv (Marv) in northeastern Iran.
‘Ali al-Rida, as the head of the house of 'Ali and, therefore, leader of the Shi‘a, could bring a vast claim of potential support for the cause of whoever made an alliance with him. The caliph brought him to Transoxiana, named him the heir apparent, and replaced the black insignias of the ruling 'Abbasids with those of 'Alid green. This strange episode ended soon, however, when ‘Ali al-Rida died while traveling with Ma’mun from Merv back to Baghdad. The Shi‘a, doubting the honesty of the caliph’s motives in the first place, believe that he had ‘Ali al-Rida poisoned. ‘Ali al-Rida was interred at Tus by Ma’mun in a mausoleum already containing the remains of Ma’mun’s father Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasid caliph of Arabian Nights fame. The spot soon grew in significance because of the presence there of the 'Alid imam. Its name was changed to Masshad (literally, “shrine” or “sanctuary”). It became one of the most important centers for Shi‘a pilgrimage and is now at the center of Iran’s third largest city, to which it gives its name.
Alī ibn Mūsā al-Ridā was the seventh descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the eighth of the Twelve Imams. His given name was ‘Alī ibn Mūsā ibn Ja‘far.
On the eleventh of Dhu al-Qi'dah, 148 AH (December 29, 765), Ali ibn Musa al-Rida was born in the house of Imam Musa al-Kadhim (the seventh Imam of Islam) in Medina. He was named Ali and titled al-Ridha. He was born one month after the death of his grandfather, Ja'far as-Sādiq. The mother of Ali al-Ridha was Najmah, a former slave purchased and freed by Hamidah Khatun, wife of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq.
During his childhood, Ali al-Ridha accompanied his father, Musa al-Kadhim, who repeatedly used to tell his friends, "Ali al-Ridha shall be the Imam after me." Since an extreme choking atmosphere and pressure prevailed in the period of Musa al-Kadhim, he added, "What I said must remain (restricted) up to you and do not reproduce it to anybody unless you know he is one of our friends and companions."
Ali al-Ridha’s father was martyred in 799, when Ali al-Ridha was 35, and he was given the responsibility of the Imamate. Ali al-Ridha was not looked upon favorably by Hārūn Rashīd, and the people of Medina were disallowed from visiting Ali al-Ridha and learning from him. Harun attempted to kill him but was unsuccessful.
After the death of Hārūn Rashīd, Hārūn's two sons began fighting for control of the Abbāsid Empire. One son, Al-Amin, had an Arab mother and thus had the support of Arabs, while his half-brother Al-Ma'mun had a Persian mother and the support of Persia. Al-Ma'mun believed that Persia was sympathetic to the Hashemites and asked for Ali al-Rida to meet him in Persia. Ali al-Rida left his only son, Muħammad at-Taqī, and his wife and set out for Merv.
After defeating his brother, al-Ma'mun named Ali al-Ridha his successor. He hoped to win Shī'a support through this move, but the passage of caliphate would occur only if Ali al-Rida outlived al-Ma'mun (as with all promises of succession). Al-Ma'mun even changed the black Abbāsid flags to green, the traditional color of the house of Alī ibn Abī-Tālib, the first Shī'a imam.
Ali al-Ridha did not outlive al-Ma'mun. He was killed in Persia while accompanying al-Ma'mun at Tus. Most scholars agree he was poisoned by al-Ma'mun but it's impossible to verify it. Ali al-Ridha is buried within Imam Ridha Mosque, in Mashhad, Iran.
Rida, 'Ali al- see ‘Ali al-Rida
'Ali ibn Musa al-Rida see ‘Ali al-Rida
'Ali ar-Ridha see ‘Ali al-Rida
Ali Reza see ‘Ali al-Rida
'Ali ibn Musa ibn Ja'far see ‘Ali al-Rida
‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (597-661). Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. ‘Ali was also the fourth Caliph of the Sunni and the first Imam of the Shi‘a. ‘Ali was born in Mecca, the son of Abu Talib, Muhammad’s uncle. ‘Ali was one of the first converts to Islam and one of the bravest and most faithful followers of the Prophet. He married Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, who bore him two sons, Hasan and Husayn. In 632, when Muhammad died, ‘Ali claimed that he, ‘Ali, should succeed Muhammad as the leader of Islam. However, ‘Ali’s claim was denied and he was preceded in the caliphate by Abu Bakr, 'Umar I (581?-644), and 'Uthman ibn Affan (575?-656). ‘Ali only became caliph after 'Uthman was murdered in 656.
In the first year of ‘Ali’s reign, ‘Ali was forced to deal with a rebellion led by ‘A’isha, the widow of Muhammad. ‘A’isha bitterly opposed ‘Ali’s claim of succession, perhaps because ‘Ali had opposed the caliphate of her father Abu Bakr. Although ‘A’isha’s rebellion was suppressed in 657, disputes over ‘Ali’s right to the caliphate were not resolved. Mu‘awiyah I, a member of ‘Uthman’s family, refused to recognize ‘Ali as caliph and claimed the caliphate himself. This dispute continued until 661 when ‘Ali was murdered at Kufa by a member of the Kharijite sect. Mu‘awiyah I was then acknowledged as caliph.
Dissension between ‘Ali’s adherents and his opponents continued to trouble the Muslim world. This conflict led to the first and most important schism in Islam, between the Shi‘a (adherents of ‘Ali) and the Sunni (orthodox Muslims).
‘Ali is the ancestor of the Fatimid line of caliphs, who traced their descent from ‘Ali and Fatima.
‘Ali was about ten years old when he embraced Islam. He is considered to have been the second of Muhammad’s converts, the first being Muhammad’s wife, Khadija. ‘Ali grew up in Muhammad’s household, and on the night of the Hijra he occupied the Prophet’s bed in order to facilitate Muhammad’s flight to Medina.
Some months later, ‘Ali married Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, and from their marriage were born Hasan and Hussein (Husayn).
During Muhammad’s lifetime, ‘Ali took part in almost all the military expeditions. One exception was Tabuk, during which ‘Ali had the command at Medina. ‘Ali’s bravery as standard-bearer and sometimes commander of these expeditions became legendary.
After Muhammad’s death, a dispute arose between ‘Ali and other companions of Muhammad concerning the succession, resulting in ‘Ali, at first, refusing to recognize Abu Bakr’s election as caliph. This dispute ultimately divided the Muslims into two major factions: those sympathetic to ‘Ali’s claim, known as the Shi‘a -- the “partisans” -- of ‘Ali; and the Sunni -- those who accepted the caliphates of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman with ‘Ali as the fourth caliph.
Although regarded as a valued counsellor, it is doubtful whether ‘Ali’s advice was accepted by the second caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab. During the caliphate of ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, ‘Ali accused the caliph of innovation -- bid‘a -- in religious matters, and on political questions he joined ‘Uthman’s opponents.
After the killing of ‘Uthman, ‘Ali allowed himself to be nominated caliph by the rebels who had the former caliph’s blood on their hands. This provoked strong reactions in Mecca, Syria and Egypt. Mu‘awiya, governor of Syria and cousin of the slain ‘Uthman, accused ‘Ali of complicity with the murderers and refused to pay homage to him.
As the fourth caliph, ‘Ali inherited events which he could not avert. Turmoil brewed. The Prophet’s widow ‘A’isha, perhaps harboring a long standing resentment against ‘Ali for ‘Ali’s participation in making slanderous allegations against her many years before, engaged in Mecca in an active propaganda campaign against the new caliph, and was soon joined by Talha ibn ‘Ubayd Allah and al-Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam. In the famous Battle of the Camel of 656, Talha and al-Zubayr lost their lives, and ‘A’isha was peremptorily ordered by ‘Ali to return to Medina under escort.
Meanwhile, Mu‘awiya, the Syrian governor, continued to demand the surrender of the murderers of ‘Uthman and continued to refuse to pay homage to ‘Ali. The deeper cause of the struggle was whether pre-eminence lay with Syria or with Iraq. ‘Ali took the offensive, and the two armies met on the plain of Siffin. Mu‘awiya, about to lose the battle, had his soldiers hoist copies of the Qur’an on their lances. ‘Ali was forced to submit the difference to consultation of the Qur’an i.e., to arbitration.
Already at Siffin, a group of individuals rejected arbitration with the cry “there is no decision save that of God”. After ‘Ali’s return to Kufa in Iraq, they learned that he had sent his arbitrator Abu Musa al-Ash‘ari to meet ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, Mu‘awiya’s arbitrator. The group then secretly left Kufa and were joined by dissidents from Basra at al-Nahrawan on the eastern bank of the Tigris river. These dissidents, those who had “departed”, were thereafter called Kharijites. ‘Ali’s troops attacked and massacred them at al-Nahrawan, but as a consequence many more defections from ‘Ali’s cause followed and he had to give up the campaign against Mu‘awiya.
The arbitrators met at Adhruh. Abu Musa and ‘Amr agreed to declare both ‘Ali and Mu‘awiya deposed, but in the public discourses that followed, ‘Amr declared ‘Ali deposed and confirmed Mu‘awiya’s nomination. In the end, no decision on the caliphate was taken.
‘Ali continued to be regarded as caliph by his partisans (although their numbers were daily diminishing) while Mu‘awiya continued to be supported by his followers. ‘Ali remained passive at Kufa when Mu‘awiya made small incursions into Iraq, Arabia and Yemen. In 661, the Kharijite Ibn Muljam, in revenge for the men slain at al-Nahrawan, struck ‘Ali in the mosque of Kufa with a poisoned sword. ‘Ali died two days later at the age of sixty-three. His burial site was at al-Najaf, some miles from Kufa, where his Masshad -- his burial shrine as a martyr -- subsequently arose in the time of the ‘Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. This site became an important destination for the Shi‘a pilgrimage and center for the Twelver Shi‘a learning.
The murder of ‘Ali represents a watershed in the understanding of history among not only the Shi‘a, but also among the Sunni. ‘Ali was the last caliph coming from the group of Muslims that had converted before the hijra (in 622), and he was also the last elected caliph. After ‘Ali, the Caliphate became hereditary and without the nominal legitimacy.
The personality of ‘Ali is difficult to assess. While his stature as a distinguished judge, pious believer, and ardent warrior for Islam is unquestioned, the Shi‘a concept of ‘Ali alongside God and the Prophet as a pivot of religious belief is rejected by the Sunni. Indeed, there are actually two competing perspectives of ‘Ali, one held by the Sunni and one held by the Shi‘a. Though both perspectives recognize ‘Ali’s legitimacy as caliph, the Sunni perspective views ‘Ali as being a weak ruler with many faults. On the other hand, the Shi‘a regard ‘Ali as being infallible and the possessor of a divine light passed on from Muhammad to him, and later from him on to the other imams.
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Aurangzib
Aurangzib (Aurangzeb) (Muhi ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I) (Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhi ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I, Padshah Ghazi) (b. November 3, 1618, Dahod, Mughal Empire [present day Gujarat, India] – d. March 3, 1707, Ahmednagar, Mughal Empire [present day Maharashtra, India]). The last of the great Mughal emperors of India (r. 1658-1707). During his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its widest extent but also began its descent. Towards the end, the Empire was in shambles, ruined by a series of wars (many of which were of Aurangzib’s own making).
Aurangzib, also known by his chosen imperial title Alamgir I (Conqueror of the Universe), was the 6th Mughal Emperor whose reign lasted from 1658 until his death in 1707. Aurangzib's reign as the Mughal monarch was marked by years of wars of expansion and a series of rebellions by his non-Muslim subjects.
Aurangzib (Aurangzeb) was the third son of Shah Jahan. His mother was Shah Jahan’s principal wife, Mumtaz Mahal. He was originally named Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad, but was given the name Aurangzib (“Ornament of the Throne”) while still a prince.
His first responsible assignment under his father as emperor came with his appointment to the viceroyalty of the Deccan (1636-1644). He was subsequently governor of Gujarat (1645-1647) and of Multan (1648-1652). He led two expeditions against Kandahar (1649 and 1652), but was unsuccessful. In 1652, he was reappointed viceroy of the Deccan. He reorganized the revenue administration of the Deccan with the assistance of Murshid Quli Khan and led successful expeditions against Golconda (in 1656) and Bijapur (in 1657).
When his father was incapacitated by illness in 1657, Aurangzib and his brothers began a deadly struggle for the succession. First, Aurangzib seized the opportunity offered by the sudden illness of Shah Jahan to unite with his younger brother Murad Bakhsh and overthrow the imperial forces at Dharmatpur (in April 1658). The civil war continued for some time, but the ultimate result was that Shah Jahan (d. 1666) became his prisoner; Dara Shikoh was captured and executed (in August 1659); his other elder brother Shuja driven to exile and death in Araccan (1660-1661); and Murad Bakhsh imprisoned (in 1658) and executed (in 1661).
Aurangzib prevailed and ascended to the throne in June 1659, adopting the title Alamgir (“Conqueror of the World”). He began his reign by organizing a vigorous campaign in the Deccan against Bijapur and the Marathas under Shaista Khan (1660-1661) and against Cooch Bihar and Assam under Mir Jumla (1661-1663). These campaigns were not as successful as expected; and in the Deccan the Mughals received a great setback when Shivaji overran Shaista Khan’s camp at Pune in 1663 and plundered Surat in 1664. A large army under Jai Singh forced Shivaji to accept the treaty of Purandhar (1665), but the subsequent campaign against Bijapur proved a failure (1665-1666). This lack of success was compounded by Shivaji’s flight from Agra (1666) and his renewal of war with a second sack of Surat (1670). This period was also one of considerable agrarian distress, marked by scarcities and high prices, which continued until 1670. Aurangzib issued two important firmans (farmans) containing detailed regulations to protect peasants against excessive revenue demand and to encourage them to extend cultivation. Whether these had any practical effect is debatable. The agrarian “crisis” might have been one factor behind uprisings such as those of the Jats in 1669 and the Satnamis in 1672. The Afghan tribes revolted from 1672 to 1675, necessitating Aurangzib’s own stay at Hasan Abdal from 1674 to 1675.
These difficulties probably explain Aurangzib’s recourse to a more orthodox religious policy than his predecessors as a possible means of gathering firmer Muslim support. He doubled customs duties on non-Muslims (1665), sanctioned temple destruction (1669), and imposed the poll tax (jizya) on non-Muslims (1679). These measures were not without qualifications. Many great ancient temples were allowed to stand; many areas, and the Rajputs and Hindu officers, were exempted from the jizya. The Rajput and Maratha component in the nobility was not directly affected by the new policy. The Rajput revolt of 1679 to 1681 involved the Marwar and Mewar principalities, and the latter returned to its allegiance in 1681. But the revolt was complicated when Aurangzib’s son Akbar joined it (in 1681). As the revolt died out, Akbar fled to Shambhuji in Maharasta, and this compelled Aurangzib in 1682 to march to the Deccan, never to return to the North.
Aurangzib initiated vigorous campaigns against the Deccan powers. Bijapur was annexed in 1686, and Golconda in 1687. Shambhuji was captured and executed in 1689. He also extracted a tribute from Tanjore (now Thanjavur) and Trichinopoly (now Tiruchchirappalli) in 1691.
A four year campaign (1691-1695) by Asad Khan and Zulfiqar Khan resulted in the occupation of all of South India, with the exception of Kerala. But Maratha power was revived in its homeland, and Aurangzib’s armies proved unable to contain the Maratha sardars (chiefs). Aurangzib himself besieged and took fort after fort while large parts of the Deccan were sacked by the Marathas. During a great famine in the Deccan from 1702 to 1704, more than two million people perished, according to a contemporary estimate. Aurangzib was compelled to open the ranks of the Mughal nobility so as to win over opponents, and this brought about a crisis in jagirs, which was also a reflection of the financial strains caused by war on the Mughal administration. In spite of revolts such as those of the Jats and Sikhs, North India by and large remained peaceful.
Aurangzib died in February 1707, and lies buried in a simple grave at Khuldabad, near Aurangabad. Unlike his three predecessors, Aurangzib was not a great builder nor a great patron of the arts. His interests lay elsewhere. He patronized the compilation of a great collection of rules of Muslim law, the Fatawa-i Alamgiri, and liberalized awards of land grants to theologians. He was not, however, a blind fanatic, and tried to maintain the administrative machinery of the empire in as efficient a shape as he had found it. He had few personal vices, and remained dedicated to his work until his death. His death was followed by a war of succession among his sons Mu’azzam (Bahadur Shah), Azam, and Kam Bakhsh; and although Mu’azzam was successful (1709), the empire was badly shaken by the war. Aurangzib’s failure to resolve the Maratha question also left alive a threat to the empire that would only grow with time.
From a contemporary perspective, Aurangzib is perceived to have been a shrewd military leader and a brilliant ruler, with an administrative talent matched by cunning statesmanship. A devote Muslim, Aurangzib unwisely abandoned the religious tolerance of his Mughal predecessors and ruled the Hindu majority by ruthless force that earned him their universal hatred. Aurangzib also won the enmity of the Sikhs when he executed their ninth guru, Tegh Bahadur (1621-1675). Nevertheless, when Aurangzib died, on an expedition against the Marathas, he left a vast empire, albeit an internally weakened one that would not long endure.
Today, Aurangzib is usually perceived as being the complete opposite in temperament to his great grandfather, Akbar. If Akbar’s reign was characterized by the word “tolerance”, then Aurangzib’s was summed up by the word “persecution.”
Aurangzib observed the precepts of Islam faithfully. He lived in the palace almost as if he were an ascetic and, like his great grandfather, turned to a largely vegetarian diet. A strict legalist, Aurangzib could not condone the “idolatry” of his Hindu subjects. Ironically, his fanatical dedication to Islam did more to hamper the spread of Islam than did Akbar’s alleged apostasy.
Under Aurangzib, Hindu Indians once again resisted their foreign rulers. Within Aurangzib’s Islam, bitterness developed between those who were doggedly determined to follow the militaristic rules of the Qur’an and those inclined to the spreading of faith in Allah by example and preaching. Aurangzib’s reign marked the beginning of the end for the Mughal empire. His narrow vision of justice and his grim determination to unite his subjects by force finally shattered the fragile foundations of peaceful cooperation which Akbar had sought to establish.
Aurangzeb see Aurangzib
Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I see Aurangzib
Muhammad, Muhi-ud-Din see Aurangzib
“Ornament of the Throne” see Aurangzib
Alamgir see Aurangzib
“Conqueror of the World” see Aurangzib
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