Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan (Umar ibn Abdul Aziz) (Umar II) (November 2, 682 - February, 720). Umayyad caliph (r. 717-720). In 706, he became governor of the Hejaz and settled at Medina where he formed an advisory council. He became famous for his piety and frugality, feeling no obligation to spread Islam by the sword. He preferred peaceful missionary activity, which method proved successful among the Berbers and in Sind. He adopted a kindly attitude towards the ‘Alids, the Christians, the Jews and the Zoroastrians, and reduced discrimination against non-Arab converts to Islam. His most important measure was the reform of taxation. The ever-increasing conversion to Islam of non-Arabs led to more and more subjects being exempt from taxation. Furthermore, agriculture suffered to a great extent as a result of many converts settling in the cities. Al-Hajjaj therefore had imposed the land-tax (in Arabic, kharaj) also upon Muslim landowners and prohibited immigration to the cities. ‘Umar, however, adhered to the principle that Muslims should pay no tribute and propounded that conquered land was the common property of the Muslim community and conquered land was the common property of the Muslim community and could not be transformed into immune private property by sale to individual Muslims. In 718, he forbade Muslims to buy land which should pay tribute and permitted immigration of new converts into the cities. In course of time a whole cycle of pious legends gathered round his name. Even the historians of the ‘Abbasid period give him the highest praise, and his tomb at Dayr Sam‘an near Aleppo was left undisturbed after the ‘Abbasid triumph.
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 717 to 720. He was also a cousin of the former caliph, being the son of Abd al-Malik's younger brother, Abd al-Aziz. He was also a great-grandson of the companion of the Prophet Muhammad, Umar ibn Al-Khattab.
Umar was born around 682. Some traditions state that he was born in Medina while others claim that he was born in Egypt.
According to a Sunni Muslim tradition, Umar's lineage to Umar ibn al-Khattab stems from a famous event during the second Caliph's rule. During one of his frequent disguised journeys to survey the condition of his people, Umar overheard a milkmaid refusing to obey her mother's orders to sell adulterated milk. He sent an officer to purchase milk from the girl the next day and learned that she had kept her resolve; the milk was unadulterated. Umar summoned the girl and her mother to his court and told them what he had heard. As a reward, he offered to marry the girl to his son Asim. She accepted, and from this union was born a girl named Layla that would in due course become the mother of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.
Umar would grow up in Medina and live there until the death of his father, after which he was summoned to Damascus by Abd al-Malik and married to his daughter Fatima. His father-in-law would die soon after, and he would serve as governor of Medina under his cousin Al-Walid I.
Unlike most rulers of that era, Umar formed a council with which he administered the province. His time in Medina was so notable that official grievances sent to Damascus all but ceased. In addition, many people emigrated to Medina from Iraq seeking refuge from their harsh governor, Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. This angered Al-Hajjaj, and he pressed al-Walid to remove Umar. Much to the dismay of the people of Medina, al-Walid bowed to Hajjaj's pressure and dismissed Umar from his post. However, by this time, Umar had developed an impeccable reputation across the Islamic empire.
Umar continued to live in Medina through the remainder of al-Walid's reign and that of Walid's brother Suleiman. Suleiman, who was Umar's cousin and had always admired him, ignored his own brothers and son when it came time to appoint his successor and instead nominated Umar. Umar reluctantly accepted the position after trying unsuccessfully to dissuade Suleiman, and he approached it unlike any other Ummayad caliph before him.
Umar was extremely pious and disdainful of worldly luxuries. He preferred simplicity to the extravagance that had become a hallmark of the Umayyad lifestyle, depositing all assets and finery meant for the caliph into the public treasury. He abandoned the caliphate palace to the family of Suleiman and instead preferred to live in modest dwellings. He wore rough linens instead of royal robes, and often went unrecognized.
According to a Muslim tradition, a female visitor once came to Umar's house seeking charity and saw a raggedly-dressed man patching holes in the building's walls. Assuming that the man was a servant of the caliph, she asked Umar's wife, "Don't you fear God? Why don't you veil in the presence of this man?" The woman was shocked to learn that the "servant" was in fact the caliph himself.
Though he had the people's overwhelming support, he publicly encouraged them to elect someone else if they were not satisfied with him (an offer no one ever took him up on). Umar confiscated the estates seized by Ummayad officials and redistributed them to the people, while making it a personal goal to attend to the needs of every person in his empire. Fearful of being tempted into bribery, he rarely accepted gifts, and when he did; he promptly deposited them in the public treasury. He even encouraged his own wife—who had been daughter, sister and wife to three caliphs in their turn—to donate her jewelry to the public treasury. He is widely known for reinforcing the Zakat and according to Muslim tradition, at the end of his rule, there were scarcely any poor people to receive the charity money.
At one point Umar almost ordered the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus to be stripped of its precious stones and expensive fixtures in favor of the treasury, but he desisted on learning that the Mosque was a source of envy to his Byzantine rivals in Constantinople. These moves made him unpopular with the Umayyad court, but endeared him to the masses, so much so that the court could not move against him in the open.
Umar made a number of important religious reforms. According to both Sunni and Shi'i sources, he abolished the long-standing Umayyad and Khawaarij custom of cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib, at the end of Friday sermons and ordered the following Qu'ranic verse be recited instead:
- Surely God enjoins justice, doing of good and giving to kinsfolk.
In addition, Umar was keen to enforce the Sharia, pushing to end drinking and bathhouses where men and women would mix freely. He continued the welfare programs of the last few Umayyad caliphs, expanding them and including special programs for orphans and the destitute. He would also abolish the Jizya tax for converts to Islam, who were former dhimmis, who used to be taxed even after they had converted under other Umayyad rulers.
Generally, Umar II is credited with having ordered the first collection of hadith material in an official manner, fearing that some of it might be lost. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, are among those who compiled hadiths at `Umar II’s behest.
Though Umar did not place as much of an emphasis on expanding the Empire's borders as his predecessors had, he was not passive. He sent Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu'man to repel Turks invading Azerbaijan. He faced a Kharijite uprising and preferred negotiations to armed conflict, personally holding talks with two Kharijite envoys shortly before his death. He recalled the troops besieging Constantinople. These were led by his cousin Maslama. This Second Arab siege of Constantinople had failed to take the city and was sustaining heavy losses at the hands of allied Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. Its defeat was a serious blow to Umayyad prestige.
Umar's reforms in favor of the people greatly angered the nobility of the Umayyads, and they would eventually bribe a servant into poisoning his food. Umar learned of this on his death bed and pardoned the culprit, collecting the punitive payments he was entitled to under Islamic Law but depositing them in the public treasury. He died in February, 720, in Aleppo. He was succeeded by his cousin Yazid II.
Although Umar's reign was very short (three years), he is very highly regarded in Muslim memory. He is considered one of the finest rulers in Muslim history, second only to the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. In fact, in some circles, he is affectionately referred to as the Fifth and the last Rightly Guided Caliph.
Umar ibn Abdul Aziz see ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
Umar II see ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
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'Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar ibn al-Khattab was a devoted companion of Muhammad and was the initiator of the administrative mechanisms which made the Islamic empire possible. Throughout Muhammad’s Medinan career, ‘Umar seems to have been in complete harmony with the policies of both the Prophet and Abu Bakr, the first caliph, with whom he shared the honor of being father-in-law of Muhammad. No military exploits were credited to him, but he was involved in the revelation of portions of the Qur’an {see Sura 2:125; 33:53; and 66:6}.
After the death of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab was recognized as the latter’s successor by the majority of the Companions, there being dissatisfaction only on the side of the party of ‘Ali and of the “Helpers,” who had already suffered defeat when Abu Bakr became caliph two years earlier. At the death of Abu Bakr, there seems to have been no formal designation of ‘Umar as successor, but his rule received almost unanimous acceptance, the only opposition deriving from supporters of Ali. Once in office, he assumed the title Commander of the Faithful, and dared to dismiss Khalid ibn al-Walid, early Islam’s most successful general. Khalid ibn al-Walid had challenged the authority of ‘Umar.
During the great expansion of Muslim conquests, which had already begun, ‘Umar never lost control of his generals. He dismissed Khalid ibn al-Walid and treated ‘Amr ibn al-‘As with tact. He also made use of the powerful family of the Umayyads. All the political institutions by which the Muslim state was later to be ruled had their origin in his caliphate.
‘Umar instituted a system of checks on provincial administrators by dividing the authority between the military and civil commander and the fiscal officer. He established the pension register and the office of judge, regulated worship in the mosques, and established a number of military centers, which later developed into famous Islamic cities.
The regulations for the non-Muslim subjects, the institution of a register of those having right to military pensions, the founding of military centers out of which were to grow the future great cities of Islam, and the creation of the office of judge (qadi), were all the work of ‘Umar ibn Khattab. Religious ordinances, such as the prayer of Ramadan and the obligatory pilgrimage, as well as civic and penal ordinances, such as the era of the hijra, the punishment of drunkenness, and stoning as a punishment for adultery, go back to him.
‘Umar is said to have substituted in 640 the title of “Commander of the Believers” (in Arabic, amir al-mu’minin) for that of khalifa –“deputy.” He fell in 644 by the dagger of Abu Lu’lu’a. As a motive for the murder, hadith gives the very heavy tax against which the slave had appealed in vain to the caliph.
‘Umar was assassinated by the disgruntled slave, Abu Lu’lu’a, before providing for a successor. Despite rumors, there is no indication of a conspiracy to kill him. However, the histories are unanimous that ‘Umar was more feared than liked, particularly because he expected all to adhere to his own severe ascetic standards.
‘Umar really was the second founder of Islam, but the Shi‘a have never concealed their antipathy to him because he was the first to thwart the claims of ‘Ali.
Umar was born in Mecca. A brief timeline of his life reads as follows:
In 615, Umar converted to Islam, but according to some traditions, the coversion may have been as late as 618.
In 622, Umar participated in the hijra, the escape to Medina. By this time, he had become one of Muhammad’s chief advisors.
In 624, Umar participated in the battle of Badr, but judging from the sources, he was not a central figure.
In 625, Umar participated in the battle of Uhud, but again his role was a marginal one. However, in 625, Muhammad married Umar’s daughter Hafsa.
In 632, following the death of Muhammad, Umar campaigned for Abu Bakr to become the leader of the Muslim community. Umar and Abu Bakr worked closely together, and according to some traditions Abu Bakr nominated Umar to be his successor. It is, however, clear that there was no form of formal nomination.
In 634, Abu Bakr died, and Umar became leader of the Muslims.
In 636, Umar founded Basra as a military station.
In 638, Jerusalem was conquered, and Umar promised to protect the Christian population in the city.
In 641, Umar took the title “amir al-mu’minin,” -- “Prince of the true believers.”
On November 3, 644, Umar died in Medina after being assassinated by the Christian Persian slave Abu Lu’lu’a. Umar had not arranged for a successor, but would be succeeded by Uthman, who was appointed by a six man strong council.
Umar’s reign represents one of the most important stages in the early Muslim expansion. Under him, the Muslims developed from being an Arabian principality, into becoming a world power. His armies conquered Mesopotamia and Syria, and by the time of his death campaigns had been launched against Egypt.
Umar was a clever administrator and made sure that conquered lands came under control of men who respected the caliph and worked according to his guidelines. Considering that Muhammad was mainly involved in establishing Islam as a religion, it would be correct to say that Umar is the real founder of the Islamic state. Yet, it must be clarified, Umar made his decisions based upon the revelations received by Muhammad and upon the example of Muhammad.
Umar dealt with his generals in a shrewd manner, and never lost control over them, no matter how much success they might have. He found an important ally in the Ummawiyy clan.
In his work for developing the administration, Umar also laid the foundations for a legal system, which would eventually develop into sharia. Among Umar’s regulations was to ban non-Muslims from the land of Arabia, punishment for drunkenness and it is also claimed by some traditions that it is Umar who made adultery punishable by stoning. Umar institutionalized the prayer, the month of Ramadan, the obligatory pilgrimage, and defined the Hijra calendar system.
Umar was a strict Muslim, hard on himself as well as on offenders. He never claimed to be anything except a representative for the only rightful ruler, Muhammad. He was generally highly respected by his contemporaries, as well as by later generations of Sunni Muslims. The Shi ‘a regard him with suspicion, considering him an opponent of Ali.
A member of the clan of ʿAdi of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh (Koreish), ʿUmar at first opposed Muḥammad but, about 615, became a Muslim. By 622, when he went to Medina with Muḥammad and the other Meccan Muslims, he had become one of Muḥammad’s chief advisers, closely associated with Abū Bakr. His position in the state was marked by Muḥammad’s marriage to his daughter Hafsa in 625. On Muḥammad’s death in 632 ʿUmar was largely responsible for reconciling the Medinan Muslims to the acceptance of a Meccan, Abū Bakr, as head of state (caliph). Abū Bakr (reigned 632–634) relied greatly on ʿUmar and nominated him to succeed him. As caliph, ʿUmar was the first to call himself “commander of the faithful” (amīr al-muʾminīn). His reign saw the transformation of the Islāmic state from an Arabian principality to a world power. Throughout this remarkable expansion ʿUmar closely controlled general policy and laid down the principles for administering the conquered lands. The structure of the later Islāmic empire, including legal practice, is largely due to him. Assassinated by a Persian slave for personal reasons, he died at Medina 10 years after coming to the throne. A strong ruler, stern toward offenders, and himself ascetic to the point of harshness, he was universally respected for his justice and authority.
'Umar was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers. He was a sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert jurist and is best known for his justice, that earned him the title Al-Farooq (The one who distinguishes between right and wrong) and his house as Darul Adal (house of justice). Also, Umar was the first Caliph to be called Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful or Prince of the Believers).
Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. It was Umar who for the first time in 500 years since expulsion of Jews from the Holy Land, allowed the Jews to practice their religion freely and live in Jerusalem.
Religiously a controversial figure in the Shia Muslim world, Umar is regarded by Sunni Muslims as one of the four Rashidun or rightly guided caliphs who were true successors of Muhammad. In stark contrast, 'Umar is regarded by Shi'a Muslims as unjust in his usurpation of Ali's right to the caliphate and is viewed as the principal political architect of the opposition to Ali.
Umar is regarded as one of the greatest political geniuses in history. Under his leadership, the Islamic empire expanded at a unprecedented rate, while at the same time 'Umar also began to build the political structure that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy. He established an advanced administration for the newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, and ordered a census of all the Muslim territories. During his rule, the garrison cities (amsar) of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina. Umar also ordered the expulsion of the Christian and Jewish communities of Najran and Khaybar allowing them to reside in Syria or Iraq. He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims to reside in the Hejaz for longer than three days. He was first to establish the army as a state department. Umar was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic jurisprudence. He is regarded by Sunni Muslims to be one of the greatest Faqih. 'Umar as a jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law (Shari'a). In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual allowance for Muslims. A year later he also started allowance for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of the empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year after the Hijra, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Madinah (Medina).
'Umar married a total of 9 women in his lifetime and had 14 children, 10 sons and 4 daughters.
'Umar I see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Omar see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar the Great see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Farooq the Great see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Farooq, al- see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan (Usman ibn ‘Affān) (c. 579, Taif, Arabia - July 17, 656, Medina, Arabia). Third caliph (r.644-656). ‘Uthman was an early, pre-hijra convert to Islam. He belonged to the Banu Umayya and accepted the teaching of the Prophet several years before the hijra.
He was a rich merchant, and married the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya. He is believed to have taken part in the migration to Abyssinia and in the Hijra to Medina, but he did not take part in the battle of Badr. After the death of Ruqayya, he married Umm Kulthum, another daughter of the Prophet. After the murder of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab in 644, he was elected caliph by a council of the six oldest Companions, a council that was named by ‘Umar on his deathbed. ‘Uthman was chosen because he was a member of the Prophet’s family through his marriages, because he was an Umayyad and probably because he was the most outstanding candidate, since ‘Ali, al-Zubayr ibn al- ‘Awwam, Talha ibn ‘Ubayd Allah, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf ruled one another out. Since he was an Umayyad, his appointment may be seen as a victory of the old Meccan oligarchy.
During his caliphate many serious grievances were uttered, the first and perhaps gravest charge being that he appointed members of his family to the governorships in the provinces of Syria and Egypt. He also assigned the booty of the expeditions not entirely to the soldiers, but reserved a share for his governors and family by developing the system of fiefs. Cutting down the military pensions because of the economic crisis following the sudden enriching of the Arab masses also increased the number of malcontents. One of the steps which contributed very greatly to stirring up the religious element against ‘Uthman was the official edition of the Qur’an, the destruction of the provincial copies being considered most odious.
In 650, the first movements of rebellion began in Iraq, which was suffering most from the economic crisis, especially in Kufa, and spread to Egypt. In 655, rebel factions advanced on Medina. ‘Uthman gave in to all their demands, but on returning, the Egyptians found a letter from the caliph to his foster brother ‘Abd Allah ibn Sa‘d (Ibn Abi Sarh), the governor of Egypt, containing an order to put to death or mutilate the leaders of the movement. ‘Uthman denied that the letter was genuine, but his house became besieged.
Opposition to ‘Uthman’s caliphate formed in Medina, especially among members of the family of the Prophet and other Meccans, and more overtly in Iraq and Egypt. The Companions, including ‘Ali, maintained an attitude of neutrality and ‘A’isha, the widow of the Prophet, who was opposed to ‘Uthman, left for Mecca. ‘Uthman refused to abdicate. It is not known whether it was Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of the first caliph and brother of ‘A’isha, or another who gave the coup de grace. In June 656 of the Christian calendar, a group of Egyptian army rebels with grievances invaded Medina and mortally wounded ‘Uthman. This assassination established a woeful precedent in Islamic history.
‘Ali was subsequently elected caliph, but he was destined to be challenged by Mu‘awiya, the Umayyad governor of Syria. The political, and soon also the religious unity of Islam was at an end and the period of schisms and civil wars had begun.
In the final analysis, history shows that the outstanding achievement of ‘Uthman’s reign was his establishment of the definitive text of the Qur’an shortly after 650. The Qur’an became a living legacy of ‘Uthman’s short, turbulent reign.
A chronology of Uthman’s life reads as follows:
Uthman was probably born in Mecca around 580 of the Christian calendar, the member of the powerful Umayyad clan. We do not know with any certainty which year he was born, nor where -- but Mecca is most likely.
In the early seventh century, Uthman became a wealthy merchant, and a gentleman of his time.
In 615, Uthman became a Muslim. Although some sources indicate that his conversion may have actually occurred at a later date.
Around 620, Uthman married Muhammad’s daughter Ruqaiya.
In 624, Ruqaiya died during the Battle of Badr, preventing Uthman from participating in the battle.
Around 625, Uthman married another daughter of Muhammad, Umm Kulthum.
In 644, Uthman was chosen the new caliph. There had been seven candidates, but the other ones were controversial. Uthman was a compromise candidate, and was not chosen because any particular outstanding quality of his own.
In 650, there were rebellions in Iraq and Egypt, protesting against Uthman’s policy of distributing wealth and land won in the war.
In June of 656, Uthman was besieged in his own home by a group of Egyptian Muslims. It is believed that Muhammad’s favorite wife. Aisha played a central part in the campaign against Uthman. On June 17, Uthman was assassinated in Medina by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Following this death, tensions in the Muslim world became even more problematic than under the last years of his reign. He would be succeeded by Ali as caliph.
Uthman is credited for having centralized the administration of the Muslim state, and it was during his reign that the compilation of the Qur’an was completed.
Uthman was the last caliph who could enjoy unity in the Muslim world, even if there was much displeasure with his regime. This displeasure came from a number of reasons. The most important reason was his policy towards war booty from the many military expeditions. Soldiers and officers felt that Uthman confiscated to large parts of the booty for his own administration and his family. He established a system of landed fiefs and distributed many of the provincial governorships to members of his family.
The dissatisfaction of his time was no more problematic than what other rulers had to cope with, including his predecessor Umar. As a matter of fact, Uthman’s politics were a continuation of Umar’s. But Uthman was not a particularly strong leader, and to a large degree controlled by his family. His politics would eventually result in his death. Through his weakness, Uthman became one of the most important men of early Islam, paving for the first schisms in the religion, schisms that still exist (Sunni, Shi‘a, and Khariji).
Another source of discontent was the process of compiling the Qur’an. The qurra’, who were the bearers of the sacred text both in verbal and written form, exercised a power which was openly questioned by contemporary Muslims. The qurra’ was suspected of both holding back passages, as well as manipulating other passages.
Islamic history, particularly Sunni history, remembers Uthman in positive terms, calling him handsome, generous, and plain rather than luxurious. It is said that Uthman was one of the most handsome and charming men of his time. Uthman was well known for his reported generosity. During Muhammad's time, while in Medina, he financed the project for the construction of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi and purchased the well Beer Rauma, which he dedicated to the free use of all Muslims. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph.
Uthman apparently led a simple life even after becoming the Caliph of the Rashidun Empire, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life. The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal, the public treasury, but Uthman never took any salary for his service as a Caliph, as he was independently wealthy. Uthman also developed a custom to free slaves every Friday, look after the widows and orphans, and give unlimited charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader. He was a devoted Muslim. As a way of taking care of Muhammad’s wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman wasn't completely plain and simple, however: Uthman built a Palace for himself in Medina, known as Al-Zawar, with a notable feature being doors of precious wood. Although Uthman paid for the palace with his own money, Shia Muslims consider it his first step towards ruling like a King. Uthman's sister Amna bint Affan was married to Abdur Rahman bin Awf, one of the closest companion of Muhammad.
Usman ibn 'Affan see ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan
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